The Impact of Four High-Altitude Training Camps on the Aerobic Capacity of a Short Track PyeongChang 2018 Olympian: A Case Study

s study characterizes high-altitude training camps and their effect on the aerobic capacity of a Polish national team member (M.W.), who was a participant in the PyeongChang 2018 Winter Olympic Games (body weight: 59.6 kg, body height: 161.0 cm, fat mass: 10.9 kg and 18.3% of fat tissue, fat-free mass: 48.7 kg, muscle mass: 46.3 kg, and BMI = 23.0 kg/m 2 ). The tests were conducted in the periods from April 2018 to September 2018 and April 2019 to September 2019 (period of general and special preparation). The study evaluated aerobic and anaerobic capacity determined by laboratory tests, a cardiopulmonary graded exercise test to exhaustion performed on a cycle ergometer (CPET), and the Wingate anaerobic

and BMI = 23.0 kg/m 2 ). The tests were conducted in the periods from April 2018 to September 2018 and April 2019 to September 2019 (period of general and special preparation). The study evaluated aerobic and anaerobic capacity determined by laboratory tests, a cardiopulmonary graded exercise test to exhaustion performed on a cycle ergometer (CPET), and the Wingate anaerobic test. Based on the research, training in hypobaric conditions translated into signi cant improvements in the skater's exercise capacity recorded after participating in the Olympic Winter Games in Korea (February 2018). In the analyzed period(2018–2019), there was a signi cant increase in key parameters of aerobic tness such as anaerobic threshold power output(AT-PO)[W]—223; power output POmax [W]—299 and AT-PO [W/kg]—3.50; (POmax) [W/kg]—4.69; and AT-VO 2[mL/kg/min]—51.3; VO 2max [mL/kg/min]—61.0. The athlete showed high-exercise-induced adaptations and improvements in the aerobic metabolic potential after two seasons, in which four training camps were held in altitude conditions. Keywords: high-altitude training; hypobaric hypoxia; short-track; CPET graded exercise test; Wingate anaerobic test; Olympic athlete 1. Introduction High-altitude training is based on the fact that with increasing altitude (above sea level), the atmospheric pressure decreases and, consequently, partial pressure of oxygen in the inspiratory air also decreases. The attening of the cascade of oxygen transport from the lungs to the tissues leads to a decrease in blood oxygen saturation and causes oxygen de ciency in peripheral tissues [1]. Short-track speed skating has been an Olympic sport since 1992, and it rst appeared in the program of the Albertville Winter Olympics. Since then, it has been dynamically developing and gaining recognition in the world arenas, especially in Asian countries such as Japan, Korea, or China, but also in the USA and Canada [2]. Short track is a winter sport that combines two aspects of motor skills: speed and endurance. In addition to perfect technique, an important role is also played by the tactical preparation of both skaters and coaches [3–5]. Therefore, competition in short-track events is as spectacular as it is very risky and dangerous. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 3814.

sport that combines two aspects of motor skills: speed and endurance. In addition to perfect technique, an important role is also played by the tactical preparation of both skaters and coaches [3–5]. Therefore, competition in short-track events is as spectacular as it is very risky and dangerous. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 3814.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 3814 2 of 13 This, in turn, is associated with the body's defensive responses (increase in minute ventilation of the lungs and the heart rate), which forces it to be much more functional during physical exertion [6]. Increasing the effort of the body is a natural mechanism aimed to prevent hypoxia in the body's systems, organs, or tissues, and the deterioration of their functions [7]. During training in high altitude conditions and with increased load, the body experiences fatigue faster, which increases the effect of the training stimulus, stimulates the compensatory mechanisms more ef ciently, and consequently leads to adaptive changes conducive to better oxygen transport and improvement in physical ef ciency [6,8]. Paradoxically, one of the effects of high-altitude training is the reduction in oxygen demand (economizing motor activities) and a decrease in the ability to maximize acidi cation, enabling extension of the working time during a training session [9–11]. Studies of many authors have shown that the training process conducted in condi- tions of altitude hypoxia is very effective for athletes practicing endurance and mixed sports[12–15] . Training in conditions of hypobaric hypoxia causes many physiological changes in the body. They are very similar to the changes caused by endurance training. The most common increases are observed in lung ventilation parameters, blood hema- tological indicators (the number of erythrocytes, hematocrit, and hemoglobin level), the density of capillaries, the amount and volume of mitochondria, and the activity of oxida- tive enzymes in muscles [16,17]. In the research of Biggs et al. [18], similar effects were obtained with simulated hypoxia induced arti cially by breathing through gas masks (with hypoxic air), where an increase in some physiological parameters was observed, including the most important one—VO2max. The three basic strategies for training in hypoxia are (1) live-high–train-low, in which normobaric hypoxia conditions simulate a 2000–3000 m altitude with 15.3% oxygen concentration and increased nitrogen concentration where the athlete lives, but training sessions are performed in low-altitude conditions [19]; (2) live- high–train-high, which consists of living and training at 2000–3000 m above sea level [20]; and

one—VO2max. The three basic strategies for training in hypoxia are (1) live-high–train-low, in which normobaric hypoxia conditions simulate a 2000–3000 m altitude with 15.3% oxygen concentration and increased nitrogen concentration where the athlete lives, but training sessions are performed in low-altitude conditions [19]; (2) live- high–train-high, which consists of living and training at 2000–3000 m above sea level [20]; and (3) live-low–train-high [21]. High altitudes above sea level signi cantly reduce the maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max). It is believed that, at altitudes up to 1500 m above sea level, the VO2max level does not decrease signi cantly and does not limit exercise capacity. However, at altitudes over 1500 m above sea level, there is a signi cant decrease in VO2max by approx. 11% per each 1000 m [22]. Training under hypoxic conditions stimulates the economics of oxygen transport to and in the working muscles. During training in alpine terrain, the body acquires more and more functional skills to uptake and absorb oxygen available in the mountain air. This modi es the mechanism related to oxygen transport in working muscles, which is one of the key factors in uencing the level of VO2max. It takes about 14 days of high-altitude training to improve anaerobic capacity. On the other hand, the improvement of aerobic capacity (VO2max level) takes much longer, as it requires a permanent stay at an altitude of about 2000–3500 m above sea level for a period of 3–4 weeks and longer [1]. The optimal action would be to conduct training of elite athletes under conditions of high-altitude hypoxia in all periods of sports preparation. However, in short track, due to the speci city of the sport and the insuf cient availability of ice tracks located at altitudes of over 1800 m above sea level, training is performed mainly during the general preparation period [13]. In order to constantly improve the training process, it is extremely important to constantly search and implement new but proven methods. One of such solutions is certainly the use of rational diagnostic solutions to obtain additional information about the functional ef ciency of the athlete's

1800 m above sea level, training is performed mainly during the general preparation period [13]. In order to constantly improve the training process, it is extremely important to constantly search and implement new but proven methods. One of such solutions is certainly the use of rational diagnostic solutions to obtain additional information about the functional ef ciency of the athlete's body. This is especially important in competitive athletes, where any change, even the smallest, can contribute to the improvement of sports performance. Constant observation of the professional pro le and cyclical performance of tests are aimed at supporting the optimization and individualization of the training process and lead to high performance at sports championships. Such research results may lead to a more rational training process and allow for the assessment of the usefulness of training

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 3814 3 of 13 camps in high-altitude areas on the level of tness of short-track athletes in the annual training cycle of preparation for championships. The aim of this study is to attempt to characterize the training process in high-altitude conditions and its impact on the physical tness of a Polish short-track team member highly ranked at the international level. The research hypothesis assumes that training in high mountain conditions will signi cantly affect the physical tness of the athlete. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Subject M.W., a Polish speed skater specializing in short track, participant of the Winter Olympic Games in PyeongChang 2018 (body weight: 59.6 kg, body height: 161.0 cm; fat mass: 10.9 kg and 18.3% of fat tissue; fat-free mass: 48.7 kg, muscle mass: 46.3 kg, and BMI = 23.0 kg/m 2 ). At that time, the 21-year-old competitor obtained Olympic quali cation for three events: 500 m, 1000 m, and 1500 m. The leading distance was 1000 m, where she won 12th place in the Olympic Games. She has been a member of the AZS University Club of the Opole University of Technology since 2015. In the Olympic season, the athlete obtained the best results in the multistage test at the level of: AT-PO (W/kg)—3.59; and AT-VO2(mL/kg/min)—45.7. Maximum values: POmax (W/kg)—4.77; and VO 2max (mL/kg/min)—55.8 [23]. 2.2. Methods and Tools The research was carried out during two annual training cycles after the PyeongChang 2018 Winter Olympics. Four training camps were held in high-altitude conditions, mainly during the general and special preparation period, which lasted from April 2018 to Septem- ber 2019 (test dates in high mountain conditions: 21 September 2018, 6 May 2019, 10 June 2019, and 8 August 2019). In total, before and during the training camps under hypoxic conditions, the research was conducted seven times. The standard incremental-intensity, cardiopulmonary exercise test on Monark 874 E cycle ergometer (CPET) (Sweden) and Wingate anaerobic test were used. The main method used in the research was the case study [24–27], maintaining its basic assumptions but with its own modi cations by

In total, before and during the training camps under hypoxic conditions, the research was conducted seven times. The standard incremental-intensity, cardiopulmonary exercise test on Monark 874 E cycle ergometer (CPET) (Sweden) and Wingate anaerobic test were used. The main method used in the research was the case study [24–27], maintaining its basic assumptions but with its own modi cations by ad- justing it to the purpose and needs of our research. These modi cations concerned the reference of the method to the study of an individual sports career, the development of results, and opinions on training and non-training factors of the short-track athlete—M.W. 2.3. Research Procedures The tests were carried out at the Institute of Sport—National Research Institute in Warsaw (Poland). The athlete tested was informed about the purpose and measurement method and the possibility of withdrawal from participation in the study at any time without giving reasons. She also gave her written informed consent to participate in the study. Before starting the tests, the athlete was medically quali ed to perform the test exercise, and each time before and after the stress test, a computerized 12-lead ECG (BTL 08MT ECG No. 1230, BTL Industries Limited, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, UK) was also performed. Cycle ergometer CPET and Wingate test were performed 4 times in 2018 and 3 times in 2019. The athlete performed a 30 s Wingate anaerobic test for the lower limbs with a relative load of 7.5% of body weight. The test was performed on a Monark 874 E cycle ergometer (Sweden). The test was preceded by an individual warm-up. Previously, the Wingate test was used by leading skaters and speed skaters as a diagnostic measure to determine the take-off ability over a distance of 1500 m [28]. Two hours after the Wingate test, aerobic tness was evaluated using a graded exercise test to exhaustion. The exercise test was preceded by a 10 min warm-up on a cycle ergometer (stationary) at a load of 50 W. The test consisted of 3 min stages, not separated by a break, with each subsequent stage performed at an increased load. The load

hours after the Wingate test, aerobic tness was evaluated using a graded exercise test to exhaustion. The exercise test was preceded by a 10 min warm-up on a cycle ergometer (stationary) at a load of 50 W. The test consisted of 3 min stages, not separated by a break, with each subsequent stage performed at an increased load. The load was adjusted

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 3814 4 of 13 individually to the athlete's body weight: it was 1.0 W/kg body weight in the rst stage, and in each subsequent stage, it was increased by 0.7 W/kg body weight. Respiratory indicators such as minute ventilation, oxygen uptake, and carbon dioxide excretion were measured by the “breath by breath” method using a Cortex MetaMax 3B ergospirometer (Biophysik GmbH, Leipzig, Germany) with a 15 s average. Previous studies [29,30] con rmed that this measurement system is reliable for oxygen uptake measurements. Before each test, a two-step calibration of the respiratory gas measurement system was performed. Ambient gas calibration was performed, and a correction factor was set to the gas calibration values (14.97% O2, 4.96% CO2, balance N2: 0.02% absolute, Hong Kong Specialty Gases) and volume calibration with a 3 L calibration pump5530 series (Hans Rudolph, Inc., Shawnee, KS, USA). Staged test measurements were made on an Excalibur Sport cycle ergometer (Lode, Groningen, The Netherlands). Lactate levels were evaluated in capillary blood taken from the ngertip immedi- ately and 3 min after the completion of the test using Dr. Mueller's Super GL2 analyzer (Dr. Müller Gerätebau GmbH, Freitel, Germany). Based on the graded exercise test, the anaerobic threshold (AT4) was determined by interpolation for the blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol/L. During the test, heart rate (HR) was recorded using a Polar system (Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland). The research was approved by the Scienti c Research Ethics Committee of the Institute of Sport—National Research Institute. 2.4. High-Altitude Training of an Olympic Athlete After the analysis of the sports skill level of the skater after the 2018 Olympic Games, it was found that the main training goal for the next two years will be to increase the level of anaerobic capacity, especially at the anaerobic threshold AT (VO2, PO [W], PO [W/kg]), and the maximum values. It was assumed that increasing these parameters would improve the performance in 1000 m and 1500 m events. From a physiological point of view, a higher VO2max level would increase the skating economy during the rst laps

be to increase the level of anaerobic capacity, especially at the anaerobic threshold AT (VO2, PO [W], PO [W/kg]), and the maximum values. It was assumed that increasing these parameters would improve the performance in 1000 m and 1500 m events. From a physiological point of view, a higher VO2max level would increase the skating economy during the rst laps of the distance, which, in turn, would translate into the possibility of using the skater's power at the end of the distance. Short-track skaters must control their exercise over the distance in such a way that they achieve the highest speed at the end of the distance (attacking or overtaking opponents). The athlete's basic competitive distance was 1000 m. It requires an effort lasting about 80–81 s. From the physiological point of view, it is exercise at the third level on the intensity scale according to bioenergy criteria [31–33], which is a typically anaerobic lactic acid work. The most important ability of an athlete in such conditions is tolerance to acidi cation while doing as much work as possible (and developing maximum speed). However, in order to be able to obtain the training effect in the form of improved lactic acid tolerance, an important factor is the high ef ciency of oxygen utilization. In the training process, high VO2max supports faster post-exercise recovery, especially after anaerobic exercise (characterized by high levels of lactic acid). In the 2018 Olympic season, the athlete's best time at 1000 m was 1:30.24 [23]. This ensured her 12th place at the 2018 Olympic Games. In order to be able to win the medals of the World Championships and then of the Olympic Games, another important factor was the introduction of additional stimuli to the training process in the form of camps in high altitude conditions. The idea was to achieve a higher VO2max level and to do more total work. This was expected to translate into greater lactic acid tolerance and better sports performance. The alpine training camps were held in Erzurum, Turkey, at an altitude of 1950 m above sea level and in Ankara,

process in the form of camps in high altitude conditions. The idea was to achieve a higher VO2max level and to do more total work. This was expected to translate into greater lactic acid tolerance and better sports performance. The alpine training camps were held in Erzurum, Turkey, at an altitude of 1950 m above sea level and in Ankara, Turkey, at an altitude of 938 m above sea level (Table). The training conditions in Erzurum were conducive to the execution of a standard training plan (ice track, treadmill, gym). Additional training stimuli were used in the form of various running forms and cycling in the mountains at an altitude of 2200 m above sea level.

The study evaluates the impact of high-altitude training on an Olympic athlete's aerobic capacity.