The Role of Nationality in Ultra-Endurance Sports: The Paradigm of Cross-Country Skiing and Long-Distance Running

Although the variation of performance by nationality in endurance sports such as marathon has been well studied, little information exists so far on the role of nationality on performance in ultra-endurance sports. The aim of the present study was to review the role of nationality on cross-country skiing and ultra-endurance running. Scopus and PubMed were searched using the syntax “nationality AND (ultra-endurance OR ultra-marathon OR cross-country skiing) in 1/4/2020. This search identi ed 17 articles, whose references were further examined for relevant literature. It was observed that Russian athletes dominated ultra-endurance running and cross-country skiing races. It was shown that these races were in other countries, where it was assumed that only the best Russians competed. Potential explanations could be misuse of performance enhancing substances, historical, climate-geographical and psychophysiological (e.g., combination of genetic and social factors). In summary, recent studies found a dominance of Russian athletes in speci c races (i.e., `Comrades Marathon', `Vasaloppet', and `Engadin Ski Marathon') and disciplines (i.e., ultra-marathon running, cross-country skiing) over a period of several decades. Future studies are need to investigate other events and other sport disciplines to con rm this Russian dominance. Keywords:culture; endurance; genetics; nationality; performance; gender 1. Introduction Recent studies have shown that Russian athletes dominate speci c sports disciplines such as cross-country skiing (e.g., Engadin Ski Marathon, Vasaloppet) [1,2] and long-distance running (e.g., Comrades Marathon, 100-km ultra-marathons) [3,4]. These ndings appeared to qualify for further investigation since in all data analyses always all nishers and—when possible—all years of all editions of these events

performance; gender 1. Introduction Recent studies have shown that Russian athletes dominate speci c sports disciplines such as cross-country skiing (e.g., Engadin Ski Marathon, Vasaloppet) [1,2] and long-distance running (e.g., Comrades Marathon, 100-km ultra-marathons) [3,4]. These ndings appeared to qualify for further investigation since in all data analyses always all nishers and—when possible—all years of all editions of these events were considered. In this review, we discussed these ndings in detail and tried to provide potential explanations why Russian athletes dominate these speci c disciplines or events. Scopus and PubMed were searched using the syntax “nationality AND (ultra-endurance OR ultra-marathon OR cross-country skiing) in 1/4/2020. This search identi ed 17 articles, whose references were further examined for relevant literature. 2. The Aspect of Nationality and Running Performance It has been well-known since years that running races were dominated by athletes originating from speci c regions of the world. Best running performances are dominated by a few groups including runners with West African ancestry for the sprint distances and East African runners for the long Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 2543; doi:10.3390 /ijerph17072543 /journal/ijerph

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 2543 2 of 9 running distances up to the marathon [5]. Regarding long distance running, it was well known that East African runners from Kenya [6–10] and Ethiopia [11,12] dominate running races of di erent distances up to the marathon distance. In sprinting, runners from Jamaica were the best [13]. Potential explanations for the Kenyan dominance in running were both environmental and social factors. Most national and international Kenyan athletes came from the Rift Valley province, belonged to the Kalenjin ethnic group and Nandi sub-tribe, and spoke languages of Nilotic origin. A higher proportion of all athletes ran to school each day [9]. In Ethiopian runners, both environmental and genetic factors had an in uence on athletic success. Elite endurance athletes were of a distinct environmental background in terms of geographical distribution and ethnicity. Ethiopian marathoners were mainly from the regions of Arsi and Shewa. The language distribution of marathoners di ered from all groups with a predominance of languages of Cushitic origin. A higher proportion of marathoners ran to school and covered greater distances [12]. However, also for sprinters from Jamaica, success in sprinting might be related to both environmental and social factors. Sprint athletes predominantly originated from Surrey County, whilst middle distance athletes originated mainly from the Middlesex County. The language distribution of all groups showed a predominance of English. A higher proportion of both middle distance and jump and throw athletes walked to school and ran greater distances to school [13]. East African nationality seemed also to be important in pacing during a large city marathon. When data of 117,595 women and 180,487 men competing in the `New York City Marathon' between 2006 and 2016 were analysed, Ethiopians and Kenyans were the fastest and runners from these countries showed more even pacing strategies than runners from other nationalities. Furthermore, the largest prevalence of an end spurt was in runners from the United States of America whereas the smallest prevalence was found in Ethiopians and Kenyans [14]. Overall, in running, colored athletes from Jamaica thus dominate sprint distances and from both Kenya

the fastest and runners from these countries showed more even pacing strategies than runners from other nationalities. Furthermore, the largest prevalence of an end spurt was in runners from the United States of America whereas the smallest prevalence was found in Ethiopians and Kenyans [14]. Overall, in running, colored athletes from Jamaica thus dominate sprint distances and from both Kenya and Ethiopia long-distance running (up to marathons). 3. Dominance in Cross-Country Skiing Recent studies have reported that Russian athletes were the fastest in two cross-country skiing races, the `Engadin Ski Marathon' held in Switzerland [2] and the `Vasaloppet' held in Sweden [15] (Table). Like the fastest marathoners in the world (i.e., Ethiopians and Kenyans), the fastest cross-country skiers also showed the most even pacing. In the `Vasaloppet', female and male Russians showed a more even pacing compared to their slower counterparts [15]. The dominance of Russians in the `Vasaloppet' was con rmed in a recent analysis of this race from 1922 to 2017 [1]. Table 1.Cross-country skiing races with dominance of Russian athletes. Race Time Frame Number of Overall Subjects Results Vasaloppet [15] 2004–2017 183,919 nishers (19,465 women and 164,454 men) In women, athletes from Russia (7:47:46 1:41:38 h: min: s), Norway (7:51:52 1:40:43 h: min: s), Austria (7:59:04 1:38:56 h: min: s), Estonia (8:14:03 1:35:17 h: min: s) and Switzerland (8:15:14 1:41:08 h: min: s) were the fastest. In men, athletes from Russia (6:33:03 1:31:54 h: min: s) and Norway (6:36:33 1: 37:01 h: min: s) were the fastest Vasaloppet [1] 1922–2017 562,413 nishers In women Russians, Norwegian, Austrians, and Estonians were the fastest. In men, Russians, Norwegians, and Austrians were the fastest Engadin Ski Marathon [2] 1998–2016 197,125 nishers Russians were the fastest

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 2543 3 of 9 4. Dominance in Long-Distance Running In addition to cross-country skiing, it has been observed that Russian athletes were the fastest in long-distance running races such as the `Comrades Marathon' held in South Africa [3] and in 100-km ultra-marathon running races [16] (Table). Ultra-marathoners from Russia were among the fastest in the world. In 100-km ultra-marathon running, the Russians, apart from the Japanese, were the most numerous athletes in the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) since the IAAF has maintained a database of all the best results achieved in athletics worldwide [17]. An earlier investigation on 112,283 athletes (15,204 women and 97,079 men) from 102 countries who completed at least one 100-km ultra-marathon worldwide between 1998 and 2011 showed that the fastest 100-km ultra-marathoners were from Japan in both women and men [18]. A new investigation with data from 150,710 athletes who nished a 100-km ultra-marathon between 1959 and 2016 showed that most of the nishes were achieved by runners from Japan, Germany, Switzerland, France, Italy and United States of America but runners from Russia and Hungary were the fastest [16]. Table 2.Ultra-marathons with dominance of Russian athletes. Race/Events Time Frame Number of Overall Subjects Results Comrades Marathon [3] 1994–2017 235,467 nishers (40,211 women and 195,256 men) In women and men, Russians were the fastest (12.55 2.03 km/h and 12.24 2.93 km/h, respectively). Also, Russians were the youngest (33.9 4.6 and 36.3 5.9 years, respectively). 100-km ultra-marathons worldwide [16] 1959–2016 150,710 nishers originating from 24 countries with a total of 307,871 nishes Athletes from Russia achieved the fastest race times, when all athletes were considered by nationality. 5. Potential Explanations for the Russian Dominance A rst potential explanation of Russian dominance could be that only the best Russian athletes competed in these races typically held very far away from Russia. In the analysis of the 100-km ultra-marathons held between 1959 and 2016, it was shown that runners from Russian achieved ~37% of the nishes outside of Russia but runners from Japan reached less than 2%. It was assumed that most

dominance could be that only the best Russian athletes competed in these races typically held very far away from Russia. In the analysis of the 100-km ultra-marathons held between 1959 and 2016, it was shown that runners from Russian achieved ~37% of the nishes outside of Russia but runners from Japan reached less than 2%. It was assumed that most probably only the fastest Russian runners competed outside of Russia in the fastest races such as World Championships or on the fastest courses worldwide. In contrast, Japanese runners competed preferably in races held in Japan where the courses were most probably not that fast [16]. This assumption might also explain why Russian athletes were the fastest runners in the `Comrades Marathon' (South Africa) [3] and the fastest cross-country skiers in both the `Engadin Ski Marathon' (Switzerland) [2] and the `Vasaloppet' (Sweden) [15] although in all these races local athletes represented the highest numbers in participants. Also, in running races of 100 miles, a dominance of a speci c nation has been reported. When all 100 miles ultra-marathons held between 1998 and 2011 were analyzed, most runners originated from the United States of America and the top ten US-American athletes achieved the fastest race times ever in women and men [19]. 5.1. Origin of Athletes and Race Site in Triathlon A similar nding that the fastest athletes in a speci c sports discipline competed outside of their country of origin was reported for Ironman triathletes. When 302,535 athletes (61,087 women and 241,448 men) competing between 2002 and 2015 in 253 di erent Ironman triathlon races held worldwide were analysed, Germans were the fastest in both women and men [20]. The authors argued that German triathletes had a very large support in Germany with outstanding races such as `Challenge Roth' or `Ironman Frankfurt'. Another potential explanation was that prior German winners of `Ironman Hawaii' would share their experience with and support younger German athletes.

Germany with outstanding races such as `Challenge Roth' or `Ironman Frankfurt'. Another potential explanation was that prior German winners of `Ironman Hawaii' would share their experience with and support younger German athletes.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 2543 4 of 9 For example, Patrick Lange, the winner of `Ironman Hawaii' in 2018, was supported by Faris Al-Sultan, the winner of `Ironman Hawaii' in 2005 [21]. However, there was a di erence when the Ironman World Championship, the `Ironman Hawaii' held in Hawaii (USA) was considered alone. When associations between nationalities and race times of 39,706 nishers originating from 124 countries competing in the `Ironman Hawaii' from 1985 to 2012 were analyzed, most of the nishers originated from the United States of America followed by athletes from Germany and the fastest race times were achieved by US-American women and men [22]. In addition, US-Americans were also the fastest in the quali ers for `Ironman Hawaii' [23]. Although the Ironman triathlon was a US-American invention, a dominance of European athletes has been reported for triathletes competing in longer triathlon distances than the Ironman distance. In 1854 triathletes competing from 1985 to 2010 in 92 Double Iron ultra-triathlons (7.6 km swimming, 360 km cycling and 84.4 km running) held worldwide, the majority of the winners came from Europe with 72 victories, followed by North America with 17 victories. Race times of European athletes were faster than race times of American triathletes and Europeans improved their races over years compared to Americans [24]. An analysis of ultra-triathlons from Double to Deca Iron ultra-triathlon showed that the frequency of North Americans competing in Europe was very low (<5%), whereas Europeans often competed in North America (about 25%). Switzerland, France, and Germany were the fastest nations in ultra-triathlons [25]. 5.2. Origin of Athletes and Race Site in Open-Water Swimming Also in long-distance swimming, athletes of dominating nations such the United States of America and Australia in pool-swimming [26] were among the fastest in other events such as the `English Channel Swim' [27,28]. In open-water swimming events such as the `Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming', athletes from Australia, the USA and from the UK were among the fastest [29]. When swimming performances of successful swimmers in the `Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming' (i.e., 535 athletes in

[26] were among the fastest in other events such as the `English Channel Swim' [27,28]. In open-water swimming events such as the `Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming', athletes from Australia, the USA and from the UK were among the fastest [29]. When swimming performances of successful swimmers in the `Triple Crown of Open Water Swimming' (i.e., 535 athletes in `Catalina Channel Swim', 1,606 athletes in `English Channel Swim' and 774 athletes in `Manhattan Island Marathon Swim') from 1875 to 2017 were analyzed, Australians were faster than US-Americans and US-Americans were faster than British and Canadians when considering all swimmers. When considering the annual ve fastest, Australians were not faster than US-Americans but US-Americans were faster than British [29]. In the `English Channel Swim', the most representative nations were United Kingdom, United States of America, Australia and Ireland. The fastest swim times were achieved by athletes from United States of America, Australia and the United Kingdom [27,30]. In other swimming races such as the long-distance open-water races from F²d²ration Internationale de Natation (FINA), no dominance of a particular nationality for all race distances was observed in races of 5 km, 10 km and 25 km, when all events held between 2000 and 2016 were considered [16]. 5.3. Race Site and Local Athletes In other events, preferably local athletes competed and also local athletes were among the most successful [16,31–33]. In the `Strait of Gibraltar', the crossing between Europe (Spain) and Africa (Morocco) covering 14.3 km, Spanish swimmers were the most numerous and the fastest [16]. In `Norseman Xtreme Triathlon' held between 2006 and 2014, most of the nishers originated from Norway and the fastest race times were achieved by Norwegian women and men [31]. In the 78-km `Swiss Alpine Marathon', Swiss runners were the most numerous and the fastest runners originated from Switzerland for both women and men [32]. In `Powerman Duathlon World Championship' held in Zo ngen, Switzerland, from 2002 to 2011, European athletes from Switzerland and Germany dominated participation in the `Powerman World Championship' where Swiss duathletes were the fastest [33]. In the `100 km Lauf Biel', the

Swiss runners were the most numerous and the fastest runners originated from Switzerland for both women and men [32]. In `Powerman Duathlon World Championship' held in Zo ngen, Switzerland, from 2002 to 2011, European athletes from Switzerland and Germany dominated participation in the `Powerman World Championship' where Swiss duathletes were the fastest [33]. In the `100 km Lauf Biel', the oldest 100-km ultra-marathon in the world held since 1956 in Switzerland, athletes from Switzerland, Germany and France were among the most frequent participants throughout the history of the event [34].

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 2543 5 of 9 5.4. The Aspect of Performance Enhancing Substances Based upon news about doping in Russian athletes [35], the possibility of the use of performance enhancing drugs in these athletes should be considered [36,37]. The history of major incidents involving drug abuse by serious national players in sport suggested a 20-year cycle, with the former German Democratic Republic, China and now Russia employing similar strategies [38,39]. In the former German Democratic Republic, a state doping program was established [40]. From 1966 on, hundreds of physicians and scientists, including top-ranking professors, performed doping research and administered prescription drugs as well as unapproved experimental drug preparations in which mainly anabolic steroids were used [41]. Regarding economic structures, the German Democratic Republic was very similar to that in the Soviet Union (former Russia), with state ownership and centralized control [42]. We should also be aware that Russia, the former Soviet Union and the former German Democratic Republic had a very long tradition in research in exercise physiology [43,44]. During the Cold War between 1952 and 1988, the former Soviet Union dominated athletics [34]. One should be aware that the existence of a state sponsored sport doping program in Russia has recently been established. In November 2015, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) implicated Russian athletes, coaches, trainers, doctors, laboratory directors, and sport o cials in `a deeply rooted culture of cheating' and `a systemic culture of doping' [25]. The Russian Athletics Federation (RusAF) has been suspended by the IAAF since November 2015, after the World Anti-Doping Agency investigated allegations of widespread doping [45]. Russian athletes remain banned from international competitions after the IAAF upheld the country's suspension into 2019 [46]. Regarding a potential use of performance enhancing drugs, we should consider the history of testing for prohibited substances. The ght against performance-enhancing substances began in the 1920s, long before there were testing methods for the prohibited substances [47]. The ght against doping in sports started as a result of the death of a Danish cyclist during the Rome Olympic Games in 1960 [48]. In 1967, the

enhancing drugs, we should consider the history of testing for prohibited substances. The ght against performance-enhancing substances began in the 1920s, long before there were testing methods for the prohibited substances [47]. The ght against doping in sports started as a result of the death of a Danish cyclist during the Rome Olympic Games in 1960 [48]. In 1967, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) established a Medical Commission responsible for developing a list of prohibited substances and methods. Drug tests were rst introduced at the Olympic Winter Games in Grenoble and at the Olympic Summer Games in Mexico City in 1968 [49]. After the scandal at the 1998Tour de France, the ght against doping was intensi ed on national as well as international levels [50]. A major shift occurred in 1999, when the WADA was formed as an independent body to harmonize antidoping practices [51], and independent national antidoping organizations such as the Australian Sport Drug Agency, the Canadian Center for Ethics in Sport, and the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) began to emerge [47,52,53]. WADA was established as a Swiss foundation with the support of intergovernmental bodies, governments, public authorities, and sports organizations [47,52]. We were not able to con rm the possibility for an abuse of performance enhancing drugs in ultra-marathoners and cross-country skiers competing in these races. Races such as the `Comrades Marathon' [3], the `Engadin Ski Marathon' [2] and the `Vasaloppet' [15] have been held for decades and in some of the studies the time frames of the investigated periods started before o cial testing for prohibited substances started. Furthermore, testing for prohibited substances was primarily introduced for very large events such as Olympic Games or World Championships [49]. In addition, mainly high-level athletes were suspect of doping. Late in 1983, months before they announced a boycott of the Los Angeles Olympic Games, sports o cials of the Soviet Union sent detailed instructions to the head of the nation's track and eld team [54]. Recent doping a airs clearly demonstrated that all sports were concerned, leading to a generalized suspicion concerning champions and their performance [55].

The study examines the dominance of Russian athletes in ultra-endurance sports.