Abstract
This pilot study investigates the moderating role of passion for running in the relation between mental recovery from running and running-related injuries (RRIs). We predict that the relation between recovery and injuries is dependent on the level of passion. A cross-sectional survey study was conducted among 246 Dutch recreational runners. Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed that the negative association between mental recovery after running and RRIs is moderated (i.e., strengthened) by harmonious passion. Put di erently, runners who are able to mentally recover well after running were less likely to report RRIs in the case of harmonious passion. Additionally, ndings demonstrated that obsessively passionate runners were more likely to report RRIs. Passionate runners may bene t from education programs to help them integrate running more harmoniously with other aspects of life, and to prevent injuries. In addition, they should be educated about the crucial role of appropriate mental recovery from running. Considering mental aspects in running such as mental recovery from running and passion for running seems to be worthwhile to gain a better understanding of the incidence and/or prevalence of RRIs. Future (quasi-experimental) studies should investigate the issues raised here more profoundly. Keywords: mental recovery; mental detachment; harmonious passion; obsessive passion; running-related injury; recreational running 1. Introduction Running is becoming an increasingly popular activity
running such as mental recovery from running and passion for running seems to be worthwhile to gain a better understanding of the incidence and/or prevalence of RRIs. Future (quasi-experimental) studies should investigate the issues raised here more profoundly. Keywords: mental recovery; mental detachment; harmonious passion; obsessive passion; running-related injury; recreational running 1. Introduction Running is becoming an increasingly popular activity among participants of recreational sports activities [1]. Although recreational running is in general considered a health-promoting activity with associated bene ts such as social participation (e.g., through an increase in running groups and running events [1,2]) and stress reduction [3], running-related injuries (RRIs) occur quite often (e.g., [4]). Incidence and prevalence rates of RRIs reported in the literature are rather high (i.e., up to 80%; e.g., [5,6]). In The Netherlands, injury incidence is 6.1 injuries per 1000 sporting hours, which is about three times higher than the national sports average (i.e., 2.1 injuries per 1000 sporting hours). Speci cally, Dutch runners su er from 710,000 RRIs yearly, of which 220,000 are medically treated [7]. Next to soccer, running is the Dutch sport with the highest number of injuries. Forty percent of RRIs are overtraining/overuse injuries, and approximately one-third concerns a recurrence. Male Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 1044; doi:10.3390 /ijerph17031044 /journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 1044 2 of 14 runners are more often injured but the injury risk is higher among female runners. Runners between 20 and 34 years old are more prone to RRIs, especially female runners. Main injury locations are knees (29%), lower legs (25%), and ankles (17%) [7]. From a societal point of view, RRIs cost Dutch society approximately 10 million euros a year expressed in medical costs and costs due to work-related sickness absence and reduced work productivity [8]. Jungmalm and associates [9] concluded that RRIs can be viewed as recreational runners' primary enemy, and that the public health gains of keeping runners active and healthy should not be underestimated. Most researchers agree that the majority of RRIs are sustained as a consequence of structural overtraining/overuse (e.g., [10]), or as a consequence of underrecovery (e.g., [11]). Yet, most existing empirical research on injury prediction and prevention focuses heavily upon the physical aspects of overtraining/overuse and underrecovery (e.g., [12]), and focuses less on their mental aspects, despite the potential role of mental aspects in injury prediction and prevention mentioned in the literature (e.g., [3,10,13,14]). As a result, evidence-based knowledge on the role of mental aspects in RRIs is still in its infancy. For that reason, the aim of the present pilot study is to investigate the role of two particular mental aspects in RRIs, namely mental recovery from running and passion for running. Speci cally, using the Dualistic Model of Passion [15,16] as a heuristic framework, this study explores and tests the moderating role of passion in the mental recovery-injury relation. 1.1. Mental Recovery and Injuries Runners are exposed to all kinds of running-related e orts. Next to the plausible and logical physical e ort, they have to face mental e ort as well [3]. For instance, runners often have to run focused and concentrated during races. Research has shown that it is important to compensate running-related e orts with adequate recovery to prevent RRIs (e.g., [11]). Recovery can generally be de ned as a dynamic process of restoration and unwinding in which a person's functioning
have to face mental e ort as well [3]. For instance, runners often have to run focused and concentrated during races. Research has shown that it is important to compensate running-related e orts with adequate recovery to prevent RRIs (e.g., [11]). Recovery can generally be de ned as a dynamic process of restoration and unwinding in which a person's functioning and e orts return to their initial levels before the e orts took place [17]. From a physical and physiological perspective, recovery reduces and prevents the accumulation of physical fatigue that leads to poor health. From a psychological perspective, it allows the individual to prepare for current or new e orts [18]. A large body of research has investigated the role of a variety of strategies aimed at promoting physical and physiological recovery from training and race e orts (e.g., [19]). In contrast, studies investigating the role of mental recovery in preventing RRIs are scarce [3,20]. In general, there are di erent perspectives on recovery. It can be considered as an outcome and a process [21]. Recovery as an outcome refers to a person's physical, physiological and mental state after a recovery or relaxation period. Recovery as a process refers to the activities and experiences that may lead to a change in functioning and health status. As far as the latter is concerned, several authors have argued that it is not the actual recovery activity which helps recovery (such as going for a walk, watching TV, or taking a nap), but rather the psychological processes and mechanisms behind it (e.g., [17,21,22]). In other words, persons may di er with regard to preferred recovery activities while the underlying psychological processes crucial for recovery may be uniform across persons [22]. These psychological processes and mechanisms are called `recovery experiences' (e.g., [22]). One experience that seems to be very important for recovery to occur is mental detachment from running [3,20]. Mental detachment refers to the personal experience of leaving running behind, to mentally switch o completely, and to forget about running immediately after the run training or race [3,17,20,22]. Mental detachment goes beyond
processes and mechanisms are called `recovery experiences' (e.g., [22]). One experience that seems to be very important for recovery to occur is mental detachment from running [3,20]. Mental detachment refers to the personal experience of leaving running behind, to mentally switch o completely, and to forget about running immediately after the run training or race [3,17,20,22]. Mental detachment goes beyond the pure physical absence from running and abstaining from running-related e orts. It implies leaving running behind oneself in psychological terms. We are aware of one recent study among 161 recreational athletes showing that mental detachment was related to reporting less sport injuries [20]. To conclude, a completely recovered runner is not only physically recovered, but is also able to mentally detach from and mentally recover after running. If recovery through e ective energy management is successful, health and performance will improve, and runners may report less RRIs accordingly [3].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 1044 3 of 14 1.2. Passion and Injuries A mental aspect that has gained more and more attention in sport research is passion [15,16,23]. The Dualistic Model of Passion (DMP; [15,16,24]) de nes passion as a strong inclination toward a self-de ning activity that people like, value, and consider important, and in which they invest considerable time and energy. The DMP suggests that di erent individuals can be highly committed to the same extent toward an activity such as running, and yet pursue it in qualitatively di erent ways. Accordingly, the DMP posits the existence of two speci c types of passion: harmonious and obsessive. Harmonious passion (HP) results from an autonomous internalization of an activity into one's identity, and is characterized by a strong desire to freely engage in the passionate activity [25]. With HP, the passionate activity occupies a meaningfulbut not overwhelmingplace in one's life and remains in harmony with other aspects of a person's life [26]. HP is assumed to lead to exible persistence: one is in full control of the passionate activity, so that when conditions become harmful, involvement in the activity should decline or even stop [27]. The second type of passion, obsessive passion (OP), also refers to a strong desire to engage in the passionate activity [25]. However, OP overwhelms one's attention, and is postulated to result from an overcontrolled internalization of an activity into one's identity. OP is also assumed to lead to rigid persistence: one comes to be fully controlled by the passionate activity at the expense of other activities [25,27]. OP leads the person to value the passionate activity over and above all other important activities. This often leads to con icts either between the passionate activity and other activities, or with one's partner and relatives [26]. Empirical ndings have been consistent with this conceptualization of passion (e.g., [16,24]). Where both types of passion predict similar commitment to an activity and are part of someone's identity, they have been found to be di erentially associated with various outcomes (e.g., [15,16,24]). There is considerable evidence that
passionate activity and other activities, or with one's partner and relatives [26]. Empirical ndings have been consistent with this conceptualization of passion (e.g., [16,24]). Where both types of passion predict similar commitment to an activity and are part of someone's identity, they have been found to be di erentially associated with various outcomes (e.g., [15,16,24]). There is considerable evidence that HP is positively related to psychological outcomes (e.g., positive a ect, ow, self-esteem), whereas OP is either unrelated or negatively related to these (e.g., [16,28,29]). In addition, HP has been shown to be positively associated, whereas OP is negatively associated, with experiences of con ict between one's passion and other life domains [15,30,31]. With regard to performance as an outcome, both types of passion seem to be important. However, OP may at times lead to higher performance levels than HP [16,25]. Furthermore, research on the DMP lends support for the model in sports and sport-related injuries as well. For instance, a study among 80 student dancers showed that harmoniously passionate dancers reported less acute injuries [27]. In addition, OP was associated with prolonged su ering from chronic injuries as well as more rigid involvement in dance activities when injured, whereas HP was unrelated to chronic injuries. Another study of Vallerand and colleagues [15] found that cyclists with OP were still cycling in winter on icy roads, and thus engaged in risky (i.e., injury-promoting) activities while they may be better abstain from such activities. Similar ndings regarding the OP-risky behavior relation were also found in a sample of swing dancers [16] and in a study with professional dancers [32]. Finally, in their study of 170 competitive runners, Stephan and his team [33] found that OP was positively associated with perceived susceptibility to sport-related injury. 1.3. Mental Recovery, Passion, and Injuries The current pilot study investigates the moderating role of passion for running in the relation between mental recovery and RRIs in a sample of recreational runners. First, in the case of HP, runners feel engaged with running but remain in harmony with other important activities of life. They are in full
to sport-related injury. 1.3. Mental Recovery, Passion, and Injuries The current pilot study investigates the moderating role of passion for running in the relation between mental recovery and RRIs in a sample of recreational runners. First, in the case of HP, runners feel engaged with running but remain in harmony with other important activities of life. They are in full control of the passionate activity and are able to stop it whenever necessary. This implies that runners with HP are able to cease running activities at any time, are able to engage in recovery from running, mentally detach from running after a run, and feeling mentally recovered at the end. So, we expect that mental detachment from running and mental recovery after running will be negatively related to RRIs and that these relations are moderated (i.e., strengthened) by HP (Hypothesis 1). Put di erently, harmoniously passionate runners who are able to mentally detach from running and/or recover well after running are less likely to report RRIs. Second, runners with OP have an uncontrollable urge to engage in running, and they highly value it over all other important activities of life. They are
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 1044 4 of 14 fully controlled by the passionate activity (rather than that they are in full control of this activity, as in HP) and will persist in running despite the body and mind signals that recovery is necessary. Thus, obsessively passionate runners will disregard their need for recovery and, hence, will be less able to mentally detach from running as well as to mentally recover after running. Consequently, they may negate minor RRIs and overtrain/overuse, or underrecover, themselves, leading to more serious RRIs in the long run (cf. [10,11]). We expect that mental detachment from running and mental recovery after running will be negatively related to RRIs, and that these relations are moderated (i.e., bu ered) by OP in such a way that the associations will be less negative (Hypothesis 2). In other words, the association between (1) mental detachment from running and mental recovery after running and (2) RRIs will be weaker in the case of obsessively passionate runners. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Design, Data, and Procedure A cross-sectional survey study was conducted in the Summer of 2017. Recreational runners were recruited via all Dutch running associations (N=371) that were mentioned on the website of the Dutch Athletics Foundation (AU). The AU is the national umbrella organization of all Dutch athletics and running clubs, and closely linked to the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) and European Athletics (EA). Both novice and more experienced runners received a unique, secured link to an online survey, where they had to ll out their email address. All participants gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study. They received information about the aim of the study and voluntary participation, and were told that their data would be handled con dentially. This pilot study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and the American Psychological Association, and received institutional approval. Moreover, the Medical Ethics Committee of the University Medical Center Utrecht in the Netherlands has exempted our series of survey research studies in runners from further ethical approval (reference
were told that their data would be handled con dentially. This pilot study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and the American Psychological Association, and received institutional approval. Moreover, the Medical Ethics Committee of the University Medical Center Utrecht in the Netherlands has exempted our series of survey research studies in runners from further ethical approval (reference number: NL64342.041.17). Initially 254 recreational runners who ran at least once a week returned the questionnaire. The ultimate sample consisted of 246 runners due to some missing data. More than half of the participants were male (53.7%) and 46.3% was female. Mean age was 47.2 years (SD=13.4; range 1977). Average running experience was 14.4 years (SD=12.0). On average, participants engaged in running activities 2.8 times a week (SD=1.0). The average running distance was 26.5 kilometers per week (SD=16.6), whereas the average running time was 3.2 hours per week (SD=1.8). Overall, the average running speed was 10.1 km/h (SD=18.8). Forty-two participants (17.1%) ran at least four times a week with an average running distance of 47.6 kilometers per week and an average running speed of 9.3 km/h. Ten people (4.1%) ran at least ve times a week with an average running distance of 62.2 kilometers per week and an average running speed of 9.5 km/h. Two-thirds of the runners ran in groups (68.0%), and approximately half of the runners (45.5%) used an individualized training schedule for their training activities. Of all participants, 51.2% self-reported RRIs over the past 12 months, such as knee, Achilles tendon and foot injuries. These training and injury gures were comparable to other Dutch studies among recreational runners (e.g., [3,5,34]). 2.2. Variables and Instruments 2.2.1. Mental Recovery We used two scales for mental recovery re ecting the two di erent perspectives mentioned earlier; that is, mental detachment from running (`recovery process') and mental recovery after running (`recovery outcome'; cf. [21,22]). Scales are available from the rst author upon request. Mental detachment from running was measured with a slightly adapted scale developed by De Jonge and colleagues [35]. This scale had been used and well-validated in sports before
two di erent perspectives mentioned earlier; that is, mental detachment from running (`recovery process') and mental recovery after running (`recovery outcome'; cf. [21,22]). Scales are available from the rst author upon request. Mental detachment from running was measured with a slightly adapted scale developed by De Jonge and colleagues [35]. This scale had been used and well-validated in sports before (e.g., [3,36]). Participants were asked if they could mentally switch o from running immediately after a run training
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 1044 5 of 14 or race. The scale was measured with three items, e.g., I could mentally distance myself from running directly after a run. Items were scored on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Internal consistency of the scale expressed in Cronbach's alpha was 0.90. Mental recovery after running was assessed with an adaptation for running of the well-validated recovery measure developed by Sonnentag and Kruel [37] to running. Participants were asked if they feel mentally recovered a couple of hours after a run training or race. The scale consisted of three items, scored on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). An example item is: A couple of hours after my running activities, I usually feel recovered mentally. Cronbach's alpha was 0.90. The factor structure of mental detachment and mental recovery was investigated with a factor analysis (PAF) with oblimin rotation. This factor analysis resulted in an obvious two-factor solution with all detachment items loading on one factor and all recovery items loading on the other. Eigenvalues were 3.50 and 2.15 respectively, explaining 80.7% of the variance. Pearson zero-order correlation for the two scales wasr=0.22 (p=0.001), showing that mental detachment after running was positively but moderately related to mental recovery from running. 2.2.2. Harmonious and Obsessive Passion Harmonious and obsessive passion were measured by the respective scales developed by Vallerand and colleagues [15,16]. The scales were slightly adapted as the passionate activity used here is `running'. Harmonious passion emphasized a strong inclination where the runner feels engaged and has full control over running, and the activity is in harmony with the person's other activities. An example item is: Running is well integrated in my life. As one item of the original scale did not pass psychometric scrutiny, our scale consisted of ve items, with an internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) of 0.79. Obsessive passion re ected a strong inclination where the runner feels compelled to engage in running, running takes a lot of space, the runner loses control over running, and experiences
Description
The study explores how passion influences the relationship between mental recovery and injuries in recreational runners.