Abstract
dy examines the effects of full- leg compression sleeves worn during a 90- min recovery period on repeated sprint performance and exercise- induced leg soreness (DOMS) in youth soccer players. Twelve male youth soccer players (17 ± 0 years; 178 ± 7 cm; 70.9 ± 7.5 kg) performed a repeated sprint protocol (5 × 30 m sprints, 20 s recovery;
study examines the effects of full- leg compression sleeves worn during a 90- min recovery period on repeated sprint performance and exercise- induced leg soreness (DOMS) in youth soccer players. Twelve male youth soccer players (17 ± 0 years; 178 ± 7 cm; 70.9 ± 7.5 kg) performed a repeated sprint protocol (5 × 30 m sprints, 20 s recovery; RSP 1) followed by a modified Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) to induce fatigue. After the LIST, players underwent a 90- min passive recovery wearing either full leg compression sleeves (COMP, 19–25 mmHg) or regular gym pants (CON) in a randomized crossover design. After the 90- min recovery, all players repeated the RSP (RSP 2), and exercise- induced DOMS was assessed via a visual analogue scale 14 and 24 h post- exercise. Mean sprint times were similar across conditions (RSP 1: COMP 4.59 ± 0.16 s, CON 4.65 ± 0.18 s; RSP 2: COMP 4.59 ± 0.15 s, CON 4.64 ± 0.19 s), with no significant differences between COMP and CON for performance changes (COMP: +0.01 ± 0.06 s; CON: −0.01 ± 0.05 s) or DOMS (14 h: COMP 3.49 ± 1.73, CON 4.73 ± 2.32; 24 h: COMP 2.78 ± 2.32, CON 4.04 ± 2.12). Compression garments had no impact on repeated sprint performance or exercise- induced leg soreness. The efficacy of compression garments for recovery remains inconclusive, requiring further research. KEYWORDS athletes, compression garments, DOMS, muscle soreness, repeated sprinting
2 of 14 | ENGEL 1234. Hill et al., 2014; Sperlich et al., 2013) induced by vari- ous forms of compression attire. According to the cur- rent evidence, the application of compression garments seems to moderately improve post- exercise recovery, most effective for long- term recovery (> 24 h) following exercise- induced muscle damage (Brown et al., 2017; Hill et al., 2014). These results are supported by other studies, demonstrating the positive effect of compres- sion garments applied during exercise (Ali et al., 2007; Born et al., 2014; Valle et al., 2013), or 24 h after exer- cise on delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS) (Ali et al., 2007; Goto et al., 2017; Maruyama et al., 2019), or on enhanced recovery of neuromuscular performance (Hill et al., 2017; Mizuno et al., 2016). Even though soccer is very popular, only a few stud- ies investigated the compression- mediated recovery of trained soccer players from soccer- specific training and/or recovery from (simulated) match play (Marqués- Jiménez, Calleja-González, Arratibel, et al., 2018; Marqués-Jiménez, Calleja-González, Arratibel-Imaz, et al., 2018; Otten et al., 2019). In soccer, it is essential to maximize match performance and maintain repetitive high- intensity short- duration efforts (Bradley et al., 2009) (19, 20), including short sprints, jumps, and multidirectional movements (Carling, 2010; Harper et al., 2019; Scott et al., 2014; Taylor et al., 2017) as the key basis for high- quality shots, turns, one- on- ones, balance, and ball handling. After a regular match and depending on the biologi- cal sub- system (e.g. humoral, hormonal, neuro- muscular, metabolic etc.), soccer players usually reach full recovery after 72 h (Silva et al., 2018). Additionally, in modern- day soccer, a dense schedule of training sessions and matches with high internal and external loads are common for players (Barnes et al., 2014; Bush et al., 2015; Carling et al., 2015; Julian et al., 2021). The overall load may result in incomplete recovery and reduced match performance (Nunome et al., 2013), and inadequate time for rest and recovery between matches and/or training may expose players to a higher risk of injury (Christopher Carling et al.,
are common for players (Barnes et al., 2014; Bush et al., 2015; Carling et al., 2015; Julian et al., 2021). The overall load may result in incomplete recovery and reduced match performance (Nunome et al., 2013), and inadequate time for rest and recovery between matches and/or training may expose players to a higher risk of injury (Christopher Carling et al., 2018; Nédélec et al., 2013). Scientific studies analyzing post- exercise recovery methods in youth soccer players are relatively sparse. A recent systematic review and meta- analysis (Calleja- González et al., 2021) reported no significant effects of water immersion protocols on the recovery of neuromus- cular performance in this population. However, these protocols, including cold water immersion, positively im- pacted exercise- induced muscle damage, inflammatory responses, and perceptual parameters. Notably, the review did not include studies analyzing the use of compression garments during the post- exercise recovery period. Compression garments (compression tight combined with full leg compression sleeves, 31.4 ± 11.1 mmHG (33); compression socks, ~19–23 mmHG (Brophy-Williams et al., 2017)) worn during a 60 min recovery period be- tween two bouts of endurance exercise appear to be beneficial for performance output in the second bout (Brophy-Williams et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2021). The ap- plication of compression socks during a 60- min recovery period between two time trials of 5 km running (Brophy- Williams et al., 2017) or after a 20 min fatiguing cycling protocol (Lee et al., 2021) considerably diminished the performance decrease after the 60- min recovery period. Although it seems as if the belief of participants a priori in the effectiveness of compression clothing for perfor- mance enhancement can unleash a considerable potential (Brophy-Williams et al., 2017). Repeated sprint perfor- mance following exhausting repeated sprint exercises and a recovery period of 48 h wearing compression tights with 10 and 25 mmHg had no effect on performance for hand- ball players (Zinner et al., 2017). The positive effects of compression garments on post- exercise recovery may be attributed to biological, physi- ological, psychological and biomechanical mechanisms (Born et al., 2013; Brophy- Williams et al., 2017, 2019; Engel
and a recovery period of 48 h wearing compression tights with 10 and 25 mmHg had no effect on performance for hand- ball players (Zinner et al., 2017). The positive effects of compression garments on post- exercise recovery may be attributed to biological, physi- ological, psychological and biomechanical mechanisms (Born et al., 2013; Brophy- Williams et al., 2017, 2019; Engel et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2021; Valle et al., 2013). The appli- cation of compression garments increases venous return (Bottaro et al., 2011; Ibegbuna et al., 2003), stroke volume and cardiac output (Lee et al., 2021), causing an enhanced supply of muscles with oxygen and nutrients, as well as augmented elimination of waste products and metabolites (Bottaro et al., 2011; Lee et al., 2021). Conversely, a review found only small effects in the elimination of blood lactate levels wearing compression garments during or follow- ing running but reduced perceived exertion levels during running and lower levels of post- running DOMS (Engel et al., 2016). Lower levels of perceived exertion during ex- ercise and lower levels of post- exercise DOMS were found in numerous studies (Brown et al., 2017; Hill et al., 2014, 2017; Lee et al., 2021). A study showed reduced muscle displacement, reduced soft tissue vibrations, and lower muscle activation in the lower limbs while running with long compression tights compared to running without compression clothes (Broatch et al., 2020). Together with increased blood flow velocity and improved lymphatic circulation (Bottaro et al., 2011), these mechanisms may contribute to lower levels of perceived exertion and lower levels of post- exercise DOMS. Additionally, reduced in- flammation (Ali et al., 2007; Hill et al., 2014) and reduced pain perception (Engel et al., 2016; Kraemer et al., 2001) are attributed to limited and less available space for swell- ings created by the external pressure gradient of compres- sion clothing. While the effects of compression garments on endur- ance performance were analyzed extensively, the effects of compression garments on repeated sprint performance 2051817x, 2026, 4, Downloaded from https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.14814/phy2.70778 by Karlsruher Institut Fur Technologie, Wiley Online Library on [24/03/2026]. See the Terms and
limited and less available space for swell- ings created by the external pressure gradient of compres- sion clothing. While the effects of compression garments on endur- ance performance were analyzed extensively, the effects of compression garments on repeated sprint performance 2051817x, 2026, 4, Downloaded from https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.14814/phy2.70778 by Karlsruher Institut Fur Technologie, Wiley Online Library on [24/03/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
| 3 of 14ENGEL 1234. remain unclear. This is particularly relevant for highly trained youth soccer players who frequently engage in repetitive high- intensity efforts of short duration with limited recovery periods, such as repeated sprinting, during competitive matches (Buchheit et al., 2010). No positive effects of compression garments were observed on repeated sprint performance following an exhausting repeated sprint exercise and a 48- h recovery period, re- gardless of whether compression garments were worn, in well- trained handball players (Zinner et al., 2017). These findings are supported by Goto et al. (2017), who reported that the use of a whole- body compression suit between two sessions of exhaustive repeated sprinting, jumping, and resistance exercise, separated by 4 h of rest, did not influence repeated sprint performance (Goto et al., 2017). Similarly, in a study examining the effects of compression garments worn between two training ses- sions, athletes participated in a simulated intensive 80- min team sport training session and subsequently wore compression clothing for 24 h. The results indicated no significant impact of compression garments on repeated sprint performance, assessed 24 h after the simulated training session, compared to the control condition (Duffield et al., 2008). Although the body of research regarding compres- sion clothing is increasing, most research has focused on adult (elite) athletes (Brown et al., 2017; Hill et al., 2014; Marqués-Jiménez et al., 2016; Nédélec et al., 2013). Furthermore, most of the compression- related research investigated the direct performance enhancement of com- pression garments during exercise but data about the ef- fects of compression garments worn between two exercise sessions with short recovery periods (60–90 min) are still sparse (Brophy- Williams et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2021). Therefore, the present study aimed to assess the effects of wearing full leg compression sleeves during a 90- min recovery period following a soccer- specific fatiguing exer- cise on performance in a subsequent repeated sprint pro- tocol and postexercise DOMS in youth soccer players. We hypothesize that the application of full leg com- pression sleeves during recovery after a soccer- specific fa- tiguing exercise will enhance recovery and
effects of wearing full leg compression sleeves during a 90- min recovery period following a soccer- specific fatiguing exer- cise on performance in a subsequent repeated sprint pro- tocol and postexercise DOMS in youth soccer players. We hypothesize that the application of full leg com- pression sleeves during recovery after a soccer- specific fa- tiguing exercise will enhance recovery and thereby reduce the performance change in the repeated sprint protocol following the soccer- specific fatiguing exercise and that the post- exercise DOMS will be lower. 2 | MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 | Participants A total of 12 well- trained male youth soccer players, classified as tier 2 athletes (McKay et al., 2022) (mean ± SD; age: 17 ± 0 years; body height: 178.3 ± 6.9 cm, body mass: 70.9 ± 7.5 kg), volunteered to participate in the present study. All participants were accustomed to four training sessions (90–120 min duration each with varying low- to high-intensity) and one match (90 min) per week. All players competed at the regional level and did not present any medical conditions or acute or chronic injuries during the investigation. All participants and their legal guardians provided written consent to participate after being informed of the benefits and risks involved and were free to withdraw from the study at any time with no further consequences. The study was approved by the ethical review board of the master program Exercise Science and Training, Julius- Maximilians- Universität Würzburg, Germany. This study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki (“World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects,” 2013). 2.2 | Experimental protocol The CONSORT checklist is provided as a Supplementary File (Schulz et al., 2010). The experimental protocol com- prised a counter- balanced, controlled crossover design. Within 2 weeks the players reported twice to the exercise laboratory (ambient conditions: 20°C–22°C and 40%–50% relative humidity). The players were randomly assigned into two groups in a crossover design. The random allo- cation sequence was generated by artificial intelligence. The same procedures were performed during the two experimental sessions and
protocol com- prised a counter- balanced, controlled crossover design. Within 2 weeks the players reported twice to the exercise laboratory (ambient conditions: 20°C–22°C and 40%–50% relative humidity). The players were randomly assigned into two groups in a crossover design. The random allo- cation sequence was generated by artificial intelligence. The same procedures were performed during the two experimental sessions and separated by 6 days. Based on the crossover design half of the group either wore full- leg compression sleeves (compression condition) or wore their long- sleeve gym pants exerting no compression onto the leg muscles (control condition) during the 90- min re- covery period (see Figure 1). For practical reasons, the players were divided into three groups, each started the experiments at different times. The order of the experimental conditions was randomized between the three groups, meaning that all members of a given group performed the same con- dition in the same order. The orders and start times of each group and participants were kept identical for the two experimental sessions. Each experimental ses- sion consisted of a standardized warm- up, followed by an initial repeated sprint protocol (RSP 1). After the RSP 1, a modified Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST) lasting 45 min was performed to induce an intense soccer- specific load. Following the LIST proto- col, soccer players had 90 min of passive recovery (see Figure 1). During the recovery period, participants wore 2051817x, 2026, 4, Downloaded from https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.14814/phy2.70778 by Karlsruher Institut Fur Technologie, Wiley Online Library on [24/03/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
4 of 14 | ENGEL 1234. either compression sleeves (compression condition) or conventional gymnastic pants (control condition) with- out any additional compression. After the recovery pe- riod, the identical repeated sprint protocol (RSP 2) was repeated to assess the potential impact of compression sleeves worn during recovery on subsequent repeated sprint performance. The warm- up, RSP, and LIST proce- dures were incorporated into the training routine 1 week before the first experimental session to warrant habitu- ation, aiming to minimize potential errors. To limit the impact of diurnal variations and to warrant sufficient recovery between sessions, the habituation session as well as the two experimental sessions were performed in the evening during the regular training hours (5:00– 7:00 p.m.) of the soccer players, with 6 days between each session. The coach of the soccer players was instructed to keep all training identical for 48 h before testing on all occasions. Participants were additionally asked to re- frain from strenuous exercise (< 24 h) and to arrive in a fully rested, hydrated state. All testing procedures were performed indoors at the same facility and participants wore the same footwear and exercise attire for every session. 2.3 | Warm-up As preparation for RSP 1 and RSP 2, participants per- formed a standardized 10 min warm- up protocol, as instructed by the investigators. The warm- up protocol consisted of slow jogging, running drills, three short ac- celerations, three short sprints, lunges, mobility drills, and one 30- m sprint. 2.4 | Repeated-Sprint-protocol The RSP is a standardized test reflecting the intermit- tent nature of team sports to evaluate the repeated sprint ability (Altmann et al., 2018; Altmann et al., 2019). RSP consisted of 5 × 30 m maximal sprints interspersed by 20- s active recovery between sprints. Before RSP 1 and RSP 2, all players were instructed to perform each sprint with maximal effort over the given distance and to avoid a finishing dip or an early deceleration. The starting position was a split start and rocking move- ments or leaning back prior to sprinting were not al- lowed. Considering the 20- s recovery
recovery between sprints. Before RSP 1 and RSP 2, all players were instructed to perform each sprint with maximal effort over the given distance and to avoid a finishing dip or an early deceleration. The starting position was a split start and rocking move- ments or leaning back prior to sprinting were not al- lowed. Considering the 20- s recovery interval between the sprints during both RSPs, all players were instructed to decelerate after completing each 30- m distance and jogging back to the start. During the last 10- s of each 20-s rest interval, a loud countdown was provided by the investigators. All players started each 30- m distance from a standing position, thereby avoiding a flying start. During RSP 1 and RSP 2, standardized verbal encourage- ment was provided by the investigators following each of the five sprints. Both the RSP and the habituation session were performed indoors on the same PVC floor. All 5 × 30-m sprint times were recorded with validated single- beam timing lights, employing error correction– processing algorithms sampling at 1.000 Hz (Smartspeed Pro, Fusion Sport, Coopers Plains, Australia) (Altmann et al., 2018). The timing lights were placed at 0, 5, 10, and 30 m mounted at 95 cm height, representing the height of the body close to the center of mass (Haugen & Buchheit, 2016). The starting distance from the first timing gate was set at 30 cm (Altmann et al., 2015). 2.5 | Loughborough intermittent shuttle test A modified version of the LIST was performed (Nicholas et al., 2000) to simulate the activity patterns of a soc- cer training session and to induce a demanding soccer- specific load (see Table 1). The procedure included 3 × 15 min of running with varying intensities, inter- spersed by 3 min rest periods after each 15 min. During the 15- min periods, the participants were required to perform running intervals at various intensities between two lines, 20 m apart, at an indoor track. The durations and intensities of the 15- min running periods were standardized using the BORG Scale (6–20) according to the following repetitive
intensities, inter- spersed by 3 min rest periods after each 15 min. During the 15- min periods, the participants were required to perform running intervals at various intensities between two lines, 20 m apart, at an indoor track. The durations and intensities of the 15- min running periods were standardized using the BORG Scale (6–20) according to the following repetitive scheme: Two large flipcharts with the schematic overview of the LIST protocol (Table 1) were placed beside the 20- m FIGURE 1 Experimental protocol of the counter- balanced, controlled crossover study. COMP, compression condition (wearing full leg compression sleeves during recovery period); CON, control condition (wearing no compression sleeves during recovery period); DOMS, delayed onset of muscle soreness; LIST Protocol, modified Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test. 2051817x, 2026, 4, Downloaded from https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.14814/phy2.70778 by Karlsruher Institut Fur Technologie, Wiley Online Library on [24/03/2026]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Description
The study investigates the impact of compression sleeves on sprint performance and soreness in youth soccer players.