Training practices of male and female para athletics throwers: from developmental to world-class levels

uction: A better understanding of Para Athletics throwers (PAT) training practices is in line with the development and optimization of their training programs, able to produce peak performances across varying competitive levels. Objective: Investigate the PAT training practices. Methodology: Male (n=42) and female (n=18) PAT completed an online questionnaire regard- ing descriptive characteristics (e.g., age, height, weight, throwing event) and training practices (e.g., experience, duration, frequency, strength and conditioning). PAT were classified into world-class, international, national, or developmental level, and thereafter re-classified (to in- crease statistical power, i.e., Mann-Whitney U test) into world/international or national/devel- opmental. Results: Most males (92.86%) and all females performed strength and conditioning at the gym, with no differences in gym training frequency between sexes (p=0.221). World-class PAT had significantly more years of experience compared to other levels (p<0.001), though there were no differences in the frequency (p=0.400) or duration (p=0.502) of throwing sessions. Males trained for longer session durations than females (p=0.001), while training frequency did not differ between them (p=0.075). Conclusions: While elite athletes had greater training experience compared to lower-competi- tive levels, there were no differences in training frequency or duration across competitive lev- els. However, when comparing sexes, males generally trained for longer durations per session than females, but training frequency did not differ between them. Most training characteristics, including strength and conditioning practices and throwing training, were similar between sexes and across competitive levels. These findings emphasize the need for individualized train- ing programs to optimize PAT performance. Keywords Athletic

competitive lev- els. However, when comparing sexes, males generally trained for longer durations per session than females, but training frequency did not differ between them. Most training characteristics, including strength and conditioning practices and throwing training, were similar between sexes and across competitive levels. These findings emphasize the need for individualized train- ing programs to optimize PAT performance. Keywords Athletic performance; disabled persons; para-athletes; sports for persons with disabilities; track and field. Resumen Introducción: Una mejor comprensión de las prácticas de entrenamiento de lanzadores de para atletismo (LPA) va de la mano con el desarrollo y optimización de programas de entrenamiento capaces de producir máximo rendimiento en diferentes niveles competitivos. Objetivo: Investigar las prácticas de entrenamiento de LPA. Metodología: LPA masculinos (n=42) y femeninos (n=18) contestaron un cuestionario sobre características descriptivas (p. ej., edad, altura, peso, evento de lanzamiento) y prácticas de en- trenamiento (p. ej., experiencia, duración, frecuencia, preparación física). Los LPA se clasifica- ron en niveles: clase mundial, internacional, nacional o desarrollo. Posteriormente se reclasifi- caron (para aumentar el poder estadístico con la prueba U de Mann-Whitney) en mundial/in- ternacional o nacional/de desarrollo. Resultados: La mayoría de hombres (92.86 %) y todas las mujeres realizaron preparación física en gimnasio, sin diferencias en frecuencia de entrenamiento entre sexos (p=0.221). Los atletas de élite tuvieron mayor experiencia comparados con otros niveles (p<0.001). No hubo diferen- cias en frecuencia (p=0.400) o duración (p=0.502) en los entrenamientos de lanzamiento. Los hombres tuvieron entrenamientos más largos que las mujeres (p=0.001), aunque la frecuencia fue similar entre ambos (p=0.075). Conclusiones: Si bien los atletas de élite tuvieron más experiencia que los de menor nivel, no hubo diferencias en frecuencia o duración del entrenamiento. Los hombres entrenaron más tiempo que las mujeres, sin diferencia en frecuencia de entrenamiento. La mayoría de las carac- terísticas de entrenamiento, incluyendo preparación física y lanzamientos, fueron similares en- tre sexos y niveles. Estos resultados resaltan la importancia de programas de entrenamiento individualizados para maximizar el rendimiento de LPA. Palabras clave Deporte adaptado; deporte paralímpico; deportes para personas con discapacidad; para atle- tas; rendimiento atlético. Training practices of male and

frecuencia de entrenamiento. La mayoría de las carac- terísticas de entrenamiento, incluyendo preparación física y lanzamientos, fueron similares en- tre sexos y niveles. Estos resultados resaltan la importancia de programas de entrenamiento individualizados para maximizar el rendimiento de LPA. Palabras clave Deporte adaptado; deporte paralímpico; deportes para personas con discapacidad; para atle- tas; rendimiento atlético. Training practices of male and female para athletics throwers: from developmental to world-class levels Prácticas de entrenamiento de lanzadores de para atletismo masculino y femenino: desde el nivel de desarrollo hasta el de clase mundial

2025 (mayo), Retos, 66, 182-191 ISSN: 1579-1726, eISSN: 1988-2041 https://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/retos/index 183 Introduction Para Athletics throwing events (i.e., shot-put, discus, javelin, and club throwing) (International Paralym- pic Committee, 2024) becomes a perfect example of the impressive athleticism and commitment demon- strated by athletes with physical, intellectual, and visual impairments. Despite facing significant chal- lenges, Para Athletics throwers (PAT) have consistently demonstrated remarkable athletic achieve- ments, as evidenced by the steady linear progression in performance over the years (Garcia-Carrillo, Ramirez-Campillo, et al., 2024; Rodríguez Macías et al., 2022). However, PAT face significant challenges which affect not only their competition results (e.g., discrimination, particularly of females) (Oggero et al., 2021) but their daily training routines and practices as well (Cavaggioni et al., 2021). In addition to the daily barriers that PAT have to overcome, scientific evidence regarding their training practices is lacking. Training is designed with the manipulation of several prescription variables, such as intensity, volume, frequency, duration, and rest intervals (DeWeese et al., 2015). These parameters are shifting during each training phase. For example, during the preparation phase, training load, fre- quency and duration are expected to be higher compared to the tapering phase (Garcia-Carrillo & Ramirez-Campillo, 2020). Non-disabled throwers reported 9-12 training sessions per week, including resistance training, throwing training, plyometric, and sprint training, while training volume and inten- sity shifting according to the goal of each training phase (Anousaki et al., 2021; Zaras et al., 2016). How- ever, is unclear whether PAT follows similar training practices. Non-disabled throwers include a large volume of resistance training to increase muscle strength, power and throwing performance (Martínez-García et al., 2021; Terzis et al., 2008). In contrast, PAT might ex- perience problematic access to resistance training facilities, potentially affecting their involvement in resistance training programs (Rodríguez Macías et al., 2022). For non-disabled throwers, 3 to 6 training sessions per week seems to provide adequate stimulus to increase strength and power (Anousaki et al., 2021; Kraemer & Ratamess, 2004). Resistance training is essential for PAT, as the sport carries a high prevalence of injury risk factors (DeWeese et al., 2015; Garcia-Carrillo, Silva, et al., 2024).

programs (Rodríguez Macías et al., 2022). For non-disabled throwers, 3 to 6 training sessions per week seems to provide adequate stimulus to increase strength and power (Anousaki et al., 2021; Kraemer & Ratamess, 2004). Resistance training is essential for PAT, as the sport carries a high prevalence of injury risk factors (DeWeese et al., 2015; Garcia-Carrillo, Silva, et al., 2024). Previous stud- ies showed that PAT athletes are exposed to a high rate of shoulder tendinopathies and shoulder tendon ruptures mainly caused by the repetitive high-velocity throws during training conditions (Cools et al., 2015; Garcia-Carrillo, Silva, et al., 2024; Kettunen et al., 2011). Resistance training may increase strength, muscle mass and mobility leading to a potential reduction of injuries (Suchomel et al., 2016). However, the exact training frequency and duration of resistance training for PT is not clear. Moreover, a recent study has shown that among a non-disabled group of well-trained throwers, their competitive level was not a decisive factor for program design, at least at the beginning of the preparation training phase. Specifically, no significant differences were found for physical fitness attributes (i.e., sprinting, jumping and handgrip strength) as well as for body composition between national, international and international medalist athletes (Garcia-Carrillo, Gallardo-Fuentes, et al., 2024). Whether the competitive level may affect the training structure of PAT is yet to be investigated. Coaches and PAT may use this information as a tool to design more effective and individualized training programs. Therefore, the pri- mary objective of this study was to describe the training practices of PAT during their annual training cycle. This study specifically aimed to: 1) Characterize the training practices of PAT, including training frequency, training duration, and modalities; and 2) Investigate the influence of sex and competitive level (elite vs. regional) on these training practices. Method The current cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the training practices of PAT and assess the in- fluence of sex and competitive level on these practices by using an online questionnaire to gather de- tailed information on their training routines, training experience, and other relevant aspects of their sport. Participants A total

level (elite vs. regional) on these training practices. Method The current cross-sectional study aimed to investigate the training practices of PAT and assess the in- fluence of sex and competitive level on these practices by using an online questionnaire to gather de- tailed information on their training routines, training experience, and other relevant aspects of their sport. Participants A total of 60 PAT (male=42, female=18) aged ≥ 18 years, with ≥ 1 year of training experience, provided written informed consent prior to taking part in the study (31 [IQR: 23-42] years, 85 [IQR: 61-101] kg, 173 [IQR: 164-180] cm). Descriptive statistics for participant’s characteristics are presented in Table 1.

2025 (mayo), Retos, 66, 182-191 ISSN: 1579-1726, eISSN: 1988-2041 https://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/retos/index 184 Participants were excluded from the analysis in case of providing incomplete responses and those who did not provide written informed consent. Athletes’ competitive levels were categorized (McKay et al., 2022) based on their self-reported training and competition history: i) Developmental level (DL): Reg- ularly train and compete at local events; ii) National level (NL): Participate up to national-level compe- titions; iii) International level (IL): Participate up to international-level competitions; iv) World-class level (WL): Medaled at Paralympic Games or World Championships. Table 1. Descriptive statistics for participant’s characteristics Min Max Median (IQR) U z-value p-value Age (years) Total 18 55 31.0 (23.0-42.0) 297 -1.31 0.196 Male 19 50 32.0 (25.2-41.0) Female 18 55 24.0 (21.2-40.7) Weight (kg) Total 37 123 85.0 (61.7-101.0) 131 -3.99 <0.001* Male 37 123 90.0 (82.5-107.2) Female 42 106 61.5 (53.7-75.0) Height (cm) Total 100 195 173 (164-180) 139 -3.86 <0.001* Male 100 195 175 (171-181) Female 118 179 162 (156-169) CI: confidence interval, IQR: Interquartile range, U: Mann-Whitney U statistic, * = p<0.001, denoting differences between male and female. Instrument Data collection was conducted using a custom-designed questionnaire administered by Google Forms, which was made available in English, Spanish, and Portuguese languages. The questionnaire, which was adapted to PAT from a previous study (Matos et al., 2021) was designed by a team of experts including an experienced track and field throwing coach, an experienced researcher in the field of throwing, and a para sport researcher. The instrument was then tested in a small group (3 PAT) before its final appli- cation, after receiving feedback, the following improvements were made: adding a question regarding the main throwing event practiced and explicitly indicating the unit of measurement for each variable. It was then distributed to PAT (or their coaches) by the main author (E.G.C.) who is currently involved in Para Athletics throwing in Chile, utilizing different communication methods (e.g., in person; email; social networks). The questionnaire remained open for responses during a 9-month period (November 2022 to July 2023). Data analysis The Shapiro-Wilk test revealed that the

for each variable. It was then distributed to PAT (or their coaches) by the main author (E.G.C.) who is currently involved in Para Athletics throwing in Chile, utilizing different communication methods (e.g., in person; email; social networks). The questionnaire remained open for responses during a 9-month period (November 2022 to July 2023). Data analysis The Shapiro-Wilk test revealed that the data were not normally distributed. Thereafter, descriptive sta- tistics were used including median values with interquartile range (IQR). The Mann-Whitney U test was used to assess differences between groups. An α level of ≤0.05 was used for all statistical tests. All data analyses were performed using GraphPad Prism version 8.0.1 for macOS X (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA). Results The distribution by country and sex was as follows: Chile (10 males, 3 females), Colombia (6 males, 2 females), Panama (6 males, 2 females), Argentina (1 male, 4 females), Brazil (2 males, 0 females), Costa Rica (1 male, 0 females), Ecuador (2 males, 1 female), Guatemala (1 male, 0 females), Mexico (1 male, 1 female), Paraguay (0 males, 1 female), Peru (1 male, 0 females), Spain (5 males, 1 female), United King- dom (3 males, 1 female), Netherlands (1 male, 0 females), Romania (1 male, 0 females), United States (0 males, 1 female), Canada (1 male, 0 females), Australia (1 male, 0 females), and Moldova (0 males, 1 female). In total data from 60 participants from the following sport classes were analyzed including male (n = 42, 70%) and female (n = 18, 30%) PAT: F55 (5 males, 2 females), F57 (4 males, 2 females), and F54 (3 males, 2 females). Other age groups represented included F40 (3 males, 2 females), F46 (2 males, 2 females), F64 (2 males, 2 females), F20 (3 males, 1 female), F12 (3 males, 0 females), F56 (3 males, 0 females), F33 (2 males, 1 female), F35 (1 male, 1 female), F37 (1 male, 1 female), F34 (1 male, 1 female), F38 (1 male, 1 female), and 14 additional classes with only 1 male participant each: each: F42, F62, F41, F11, F44, F36, F63, F32,

females), F20 (3 males, 1 female), F12 (3 males, 0 females), F56 (3 males, 0 females), F33 (2 males, 1 female), F35 (1 male, 1 female), F37 (1 male, 1 female), F34 (1 male, 1 female), F38 (1 male, 1 female), and 14 additional classes with only 1 male participant each: each: F42, F62, F41, F11, F44, F36, F63, F32, F51, F52, F53, F58, F59, and F60. Their ages ranged from 18 to 55 years, with a

2025 (mayo), Retos, 66, 182-191 ISSN: 1579-1726, eISSN: 1988-2041 https://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/retos/index 185 median age of 31 (IQR 23-42) years (Table 1). Males were significant heavier and taller compared to females PAT (Table1). Originally, participants were divided into four categories: WL (n = 11), IL (n = 28), NL (n = 19), and DL (n = 2). However, due to the low number of participants, for statistical purposes, categories were re- grouped into two: WL-IL and NL-DL categories. Their main throwing event is represented in Figure 1. PAT reported varying levels of throwing experience, ranging from 1 to 30 years, with a median of 6 (IQR 3.0 - 8.3) years (Table 2). Most males (n=31) reported ≤ 8 years of experience, while most females (n=10) reported ≤ 6 years. Figure 1. Main throwing event of Para Athletics throwers. Training practices according to sex Frequency of training is depicted in Table 2. Most males (n=22) reported ≤ 3 weekly throwing training sessions, while most females (n=13) reported ≤ 4 weekly throwing training sessions. Throwing training sessions for male athletes typically lasted between 90-100 minutes/session (14.29%), 120-130 minutes/session (33.34%), and 180 minutes/session (14.29%). On the other hand, females throwing sessions lasted 50-60 minutes/session (38.89%), and 120-130 minutes/session (22.22%). Other less- prevalent training session durations for both males and females are depicted in Table 2. Strength and conditioning practices are presented in Table 2. Most males (92.86%) and females (100%) engaged in gym workouts (in addition to their throwing training). Males trained in the gym 3-4 times per week (45.24%), and 5-6 times per week (33.34%). Females (61.11%) trained 3-4 times per week, and 5-6 times per week (22.22%). Males completed 6-7 hours/week of gym training (26.19%), and >10 hours/week (16.67%), while females trained 2-3 hours per week (44.44%). Both males (80.95%) and females (77.78%) included medicine ball throws in their strength and condi- tioning training routines and this was performed 1-3 times a week with a median of 45 (IQR 10-145). Table 2. Para Athletics throwers characteristics according to competitive level and gender Sex of participants Category Male (n=42) Female (n=18) n (%) n

hours per week (44.44%). Both males (80.95%) and females (77.78%) included medicine ball throws in their strength and condi- tioning training routines and this was performed 1-3 times a week with a median of 45 (IQR 10-145). Table 2. Para Athletics throwers characteristics according to competitive level and gender Sex of participants Category Male (n=42) Female (n=18) n (%) n (%) Throwing Sessions per Week 1 session 3 (7%) 0 2 sessions 3 (7%) 3 (17%) 3 sessions 16 (38%) 6 (33%) 4 sessions 7 (17%) 4 (22%) 5 sessions 5 (12%) 1 (6%) 6 sessions 7 (17%) 2 (11%) > 6 sessions 1 (2%) 2 (11%) Throwing Session Duration (Minutes) Up to 30 min 2 (5%) 3 (17%) 40-45 min 5 (12%) 2 (11%) 50-60 min 5 (12%) 7 (39%) 70-75 min 2 (5%) 0

2025 (mayo), Retos, 66, 182-191 ISSN: 1579-1726, eISSN: 1988-2041 https://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/retos/index 186 90-100 min 6 (14%) 0 120-130 min 14 (33%) 4 (22%) 150 min 2 (5%) 0 180 min 6 (14%) 2 (11%) Experience in Para Throwing (Years) 1-2 years 9 (21%) 2 (11%) 3-4 years 7 (17%) 4 (22%) 5-6 years 5 (12%) 4 (22%) 7-8 years 10 (24%) 4 (22%) 9-10 years 6 (14%) 1 (6%) > 10 years 5 (12%) 3 (17%) Gym Training Sessions per Week No gym training 3 (7%) 0 1-2 sessions 5 (12%) 3 (17%) 3-4 sessions 19 (45%) 11 (61%) 5-6 sessions 14 (33%) 4 (22%) > 6 sessions 1 (2%) 0 Weekly Gym Training Hours No gym training 3 (7%) 0 2-3 hours 8 (19%) 8 (44%) 4-5 hours 7 (17%) 3 (17%) 6-7 hours 11 (26%) 3 (17%) 8-9 hours 6 (14%) 3 (17%) > 10 hours 7 (17%) 1 (6%) Training practices according to competitive level Table 3 presents age, training experience, and training characteristics of PAT grouped by competitive level (WL-IL and NL-DL). The WL-IL group had a median age of 33 (IQR 25 - 45) years, being older than the NL-DL group (p=0.017). The HL PAT reported more years of training experience with a median of 8 (IQR 6 - 10) years. In terms of the number of throwing training sessions per week (TTS), WL-IL trained 4 (IQR 3 - 5) while NL-DL trained 3 (IQR 3 - 4.5) days per week, respectively, with no statistically signif- icant differences (p=0.400). Throwing training session duration (TTD; minutes/session) in WL-IL and NL-DL athletes was 90 (IQR 60 - 120) vs 120 (IQR 45 -125) min/session, respectively, although without significant differences between groups (p=0.502). Table 3. Comparative metrics of WL-IL and NL-DL performance Para Athletics throwers WL-IL NL-DL U z-value p-value Athletes n = 39 n = 21 Age (years) 33 (25.0-45.0) 26 (19.0-33.5) 254.5 -2.40 0.017* Weight (kg) 89 (71.5-109.0) 84 (56.0-87.0) 281.5 -1.98 0.049* Height (cm) 173 (165-180) 172 (155-175) 334.5 -1.16 0.250 Exp (years) 8 (6.0-10.0) 3 (2.0-5.0) 133.5 -4.29 0.001** TTS (days/week) 4 (3.0-5.0) 3 (3.0-4.5)

This study investigates the training practices of male and female para athletics throwers.