Abstract
on pants, as functional sportswear providing external pressure, are widely used to enhance athletic performance and accelerate recovery. However, systematic in- vestigations into their effectiveness during anaerobic exercise and the impact of different pressure levels on performance and post-exercise recovery remain limited. This random- ized crossover controlled trial recruited 20 healthy male university students to compare the effects of four garment conditions: non-compressive pants (NCP), moderate-pressure com- pression pants (MCP), high-pressure compression pants (HCP), and ultra-high-pressure compression pants (UHCP). Anaerobic performance was assessed through vertical jump, agility tests, and the Wingate anaerobic test, with indicators including time at peak power (TPP), peak power (PP), average power (AP), minimum power (MP), power drop (PD), and total energy produced (TEP). Post-exercise blood lactate concentrations and heart rate responses were also monitored. The results showed that both HCP and UHCP sig- nificantly improved vertical jump height (p< 0.01), while MCP outperformed all other conditions in agility performance (p< 0.05). In the Wingate test, MCP achieved a shorter TPP compared to NCP (p< 0.05),
power drop (PD), and total energy produced (TEP). Post-exercise blood lactate concentrations and heart rate responses were also monitored. The results showed that both HCP and UHCP sig- nificantly improved vertical jump height (p< 0.01), while MCP outperformed all other conditions in agility performance (p< 0.05). In the Wingate test, MCP achieved a shorter TPP compared to NCP (p< 0.05), with significantly higher AP, lower PD, and greater TEP than all other groups (p< 0.05), whereas HCP showed an advantage only in PP over NCP (p< 0.05). Post-exercise, all compression pant groups recorded significantly higher peak blood lactate (Lamax) levels than NCP (p< 0.05), with MCP showing the fastest lactate clearance rate. Heart rate analysis revealed that HCP and UHCP induced higher maximum heart rates (HRmax) (p< 0.05), while MCP exhibited superior heart rate recovery at 3, 5, and 10 min post-exercise (p< 0.05). These findings suggest that compression pants with different pressure levels yield distinct effects on anaerobic performance and physiological recovery. Moderate-pressure compression pants demonstrated the most balanced and beneficial outcomes across multiple performance and recovery metrics, providing practical implications for the individualized design and application of compression garments in athletic training and rehabilitation. Keywords:compression pants; lower limb muscles; anaerobic performance; post-exercise recovery Sensors2025,25, 4875 https://doi.org/10.3390/s25154875
Sensors2025,25, 4875 2 of 17 1. Introduction Enhancing athletic performance and improving post-exercise recovery efficiency are key topics in sports science research. With the continuous advancement of exercise physi- ology and training methodologies, in addition to traditional approaches such as training programs and nutritional supplementation, sports equipment—particularly functional apparel—has emerged as a potential aid in optimizing performance and accelerating physi- ological recovery. In recent years, compression garments (e.g., compression pants, sleeves, and tops) have gained increasing popularity in athletic and rehabilitation settings. These garments apply external pressure to the body, aiming to improve blood circulation, sup- port muscle groups, reduce exercise-induced injuries, and facilitate recovery, and are now widely used among athletes, fitness enthusiasts, and rehabilitation populations [1–4]. Previous studies indicated that compression pants may positively influence both per- formance enhancement and post-exercise recovery; however, most research to date has primarily focused on their effects during aerobic exercise or the recovery phase following endurance activities [1]. Some researchers have suggested that tight-fitting garments can en- hance endurance running performance by increasing maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) [4] and improving running economy [5]. A systematic meta-analysis encompassing 42 studies and 769 participants found that compression garments significantly improved speed, en- durance, and functional movement performance, with more pronounced effects observed in highly trained athletes. This study also highlighted the region-specific effectiveness of compression gear depending on the type of exercise: for instance, lower-limb com- pression was more beneficial for enhancing endurance performance, whereas full-body compression was more effective in improving speed [6]. In a randomized crossover trial, Kim et al. (2021)demonstrated that wearing a full-body compression suit significantly en- hanced VO2max, exercise duration, and anaerobic threshold in recreational male marathon runners, as well as improving minimum power output and 3 km run performance compared to non-compression conditions [7]. These findings suggest that compression garments may simultaneously enhance both aerobic and anaerobic capacities, thereby optimizing overall physical performance [7]. Further investigations have indicated that these benefits are highly dependent on the “interface pressure” between the compression pants and the skin. In a single-blind crossover study, Williams et al. (2020) confirmed that high-compression (HC)
performance compared to non-compression conditions [7]. These findings suggest that compression garments may simultaneously enhance both aerobic and anaerobic capacities, thereby optimizing overall physical performance [7]. Further investigations have indicated that these benefits are highly dependent on the “interface pressure” between the compression pants and the skin. In a single-blind crossover study, Williams et al. (2020) confirmed that high-compression (HC) garments significantly improved 8 km cycling time-trial performance and accelerated blood lactate clearance following consecutive days of high-intensity cycling, suggesting a modulatory role of pressure levels in performance maintenance [8]. Similarly, McManus (2020) found that compression pants effectively improved energy efficiency during running, as evidenced by enhanced running economy, further supporting their potential for aerobic performance enhancement [9]. Compared with standard athletic pants, compression pants have been shown to en- hance proprioception and muscle function during post-exercise fatigue [10,11]. They also help reduce delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) during passive recovery by promoting hemodynamic responses, thereby improving subsequent performance [12–14]. A recent study demonstrated that, compared to standard athletic pants, wearing compression pants during a 60 min passive recovery period significantly increased stroke volume and car- diac output, while reducing heart rate and blood lactate concentration. Furthermore, in a subsequent 5 min maximal cycling test, participants wearing compression pants exhibited improved power output and pedaling cadence, suggesting that compression garments can enhance recovery quality and subsequent performance by optimizing blood flow responses and reducing perceived fatigue [15]. Research utilizing near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) has further shown that within a specific pressure range (approximately 15–30 mmHg), compression pants can effectively improve tissue oxygen saturation, oxyhemoglobin, and
Sensors2025,25, 4875 3 of 17 deoxyhemoglobin levels during rest and low-intensity activity, thereby modulating mi- crocirculatory status and providing a physiological basis for recovery [16]. Furthermore, several studies have confirmed that compression garments may accelerate muscle strength recovery, enhance lactate clearance, and regulate creatine kinase (CK) activity during post- exercise recovery, suggesting their potential benefits in mitigating exercise-induced muscle damage and supporting metabolic recovery [2,11,13,14]. A systematic review encompass- ing 160 studies and 2530 participants further supports this perspective, indicating that the use of compression garments during the post-exercise recovery phase is closely associated with reductions in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels and consistently demonstrates significant alleviation of perceived muscle soreness. These findings highlight the positive role of compression garments in fatigue attenuation and metabolic recovery [17]. However, research into the effects and mechanisms of compression pants during anaerobic exercise remains limited. In particular, there is a lack of systematic studies exploring how varying pressure levels of compression pants influence high-intensity anaer- obic activities (e.g., sprinting, explosive jumping, resistance training) in healthy popula- tions [3]. Preliminary findings suggest that compression pants may contribute to anaerobic performance by reducing muscle oscillation, enhancing muscle oxygenation, improving neuromuscular coordination, and delaying fatigue onset [1]; yet it remains unclear whether these benefits follow a pressure-dependent dose–response relationship [18]. Moreover, most existing studies have examined only a single model or pressure level of compression garments, lacking horizontal comparisons across a pressure gradient [3], which limits the generalizability of their findings. A few studies have attempted to evaluate the specific effects of compression pants on short-term high-intensity performance. For instance, one study involving 24 physically active men and women reported that, compared to stan- dard athletic pants, compression pants provided slight improvements in 10 m sprint and change-of-direction tasks. However, these effects were mostly of small effect size and showed no significant differences in jump and balance tests, suggesting that the observed benefits might fall within the margin of measurement error [19]. This indicates that while compression pants may exert some influence on explosive or agility-related tasks, their actual effectiveness remains debatable. It is worth noting that
change-of-direction tasks. However, these effects were mostly of small effect size and showed no significant differences in jump and balance tests, suggesting that the observed benefits might fall within the margin of measurement error [19]. This indicates that while compression pants may exert some influence on explosive or agility-related tasks, their actual effectiveness remains debatable. It is worth noting that most current studies have primarily focused on endurance- trained male participants or mixed-gender samples, while research specifically targeting healthy, recreationally active males remains relatively limited. However, this population constitutes a high-frequency user group of compression pants in real-world fitness settings, particularly during anaerobic activities such as resistance training, interval workouts, and team-based sports. Given their widespread engagement in such high-intensity exercise modalities, understanding this group’s response characteristics to varying levels of com- pression pressure holds significant practical relevance and research value. Accordingly, the present study aims to examine the effects of compression pants across varying pressure levels on anaerobic performance in healthy recreationally active males. By comparing mul- tiple pressure conditions, this study seeks to clarify the differential impacts of compression pressure on performance outcomes, thereby providing empirical evidence and theoretical support for the personalized design and practical application of compression garments in sports and exercise settings. 2. Participants and Methods 2.1. Participants Participants were recruited through on-campus posters. Inclusion criteria were as follows: healthy male individuals aged 18 to 25 years, engaging in regular physical activity (≥3 sessions per week), but without systematic athletic training experience. To eliminate
Sensors2025,25, 4875 4 of 17 potential interference from injuries, participants were excluded if they had any lower- limb musculoskeletal injuries within the past six months. To ensure standardization of compression pant sizing and improve consistency and comparability of the intervention, participants were required to have a height between 175 and 180 cm and a body weight between 60 and 70 kg, allowing all subjects to wear the same garment size. Based on a priori power analysis referencing previous studies [15], an effect size of 0.3, significance level α= 0.05,and statistical power of 1−β= 0.80 were used, yielding a minimum required sam- ple size of 20. Ultimately, 20 eligible participants were successfully recruited and completed all testing procedures, and their data were included in the final analysis (Table). Table 1.Participant characteristics, expressed as x (mean) and SD (standard deviation); young adult males;n= 20. (x±SD) Age (year) 19.9 ±1.2 Height (cm) 177.5 ±1.8 Body mass (kg) 65.4 ±3.1 BMI 1 (kg/m 2 ) 20.7±1.1 1 BMI: body mass index. This study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of Beijing Sport University (Approval No. 2024160H). All participants provided written informed consent before this study began and were fully informed of the study procedures and potential risks. 2.2. Experimental Design This study adopted a randomized crossover controlled trial design. Each participant completed the full test protocol under four different garment conditions: non-compressive pants (NCP), moderate-pressure compression pants (MCP), high-pressure compression pants (HCP), and ultra-high-pressure compression pants (UHCP) (FigureA). A one-week washout period was scheduled between each condition to minimize training or fatigue- related interference. To ensure data consistency, all tests were conducted between 14:00 and 16:00. Participants were instructed to refrain from consuming stimulants prior to testing and to avoid strenuous physical activity on the test day. Upon arrival at the laboratory, participants first underwent body composition assessment, followed by the collection of resting heart rate and baseline blood lactate concentrations. Participants then wore the assigned compression pants for the session. After completing a standardized warm-up, the pressure values exerted by
from consuming stimulants prior to testing and to avoid strenuous physical activity on the test day. Upon arrival at the laboratory, participants first underwent body composition assessment, followed by the collection of resting heart rate and baseline blood lactate concentrations. Participants then wore the assigned compression pants for the session. After completing a standardized warm-up, the pressure values exerted by the three compression pants (MCP, HCP, UHCP) on the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, gastrocnemius, and tibialis anterior muscles in the standing position were measured. Subsequently, participants completed three performance tests in sequence: the Illinois agility test, a vertical jump test, and a 30 s Wingate anaerobic test. A 15 min passive rest interval was provided between each test to reduce fatigue effects on subsequent performance. Immediately following the Wingate test, heart rate and blood lactate concentration were recorded at 0, 3, 5, and 10 min post-exercise to evaluate physiological recovery (FigureB).
Sensors2025,25, 4875 5 of 17 Figure 1.(A) Randomized crossover design. (B) Study visit. Participants completed four randomized crossover trials under different compression garment conditions (NCP, MCP, HCP, UHCP). Each session included body composition assessment, resting measurements, pressure testing, performance tests (Illinois agility test, vertical jump, and 30 s Wingate test), and post-exercise recovery monitoring at 0, 3, 5, and 10 min. 2.3. Methods 2.3.1. Compression Pressure Assessment Three commercially available compression tights were selected for the experiment: ZuoYouLiLiang (ZuoYouLiLiang Sportswear Co., Fujian, China), CW-X (Wacoal Corp., Kyoto, Japan), and SKINS (SKINS International Trading AG, Steinhausen, Switzerland). Garment pressure was measured using a Texsens clothing pressure tester (novel GmbH, Munich, Germany), a flexible thin-film sensor system designed for measuring low contact pressures at the interface between the human body and textile surfaces. The device assessed the three compression-pant models in the upright position, with all garments sized to accommodate individuals 175–180 cm in height and 60–70 kg in body mass. The Texsens system has a measurement range of 1–10 kPa, a sampling frequency of 50 Hz, and a circular sensor area with a diameter of 10 mm. Data were exported in ASCII format for processing. The sensor is highly conformable, with minimal structural interference, enabling stable static pressure measurements even under mild skin deformation and temperature variation. Pressure values were ultimately expressed in mmHg. During testing, each participant stood erect while sensors were placed sequentially over the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, gastrocnemius, and tibialis anterior (Figure). Three readings were taken at each site and averaged to enhance measurement reliability and accuracy. Based on the measured pressure values at rest, these garments were categorized into three compression levels: MCP, HCP, and UHCP, respectively [20].
Sensors2025,25, 4875 6 of 17 Figure 2.Compression garment pressure testing and sensor placement on lower-limb muscles. 2.3.2. Vertical Jump Test The vertical jump test was used to assess lower-limb explosive power. A vertical jump mat (ZT-II, Beijing Xindong Huateng Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) was employed to measure jump height during a countermovement jump. Participants were instructed to place their hands on their hips and perform a rapid downward squat followed by a maximal vertical jump using a standardized technique. 2.3.3. Illinois Agility Test The Illinois Agility Test (IAT) was used to assess participants’ agility, explosive power, and coordination. The testing protocol followed established procedures described in previous studies [21]. The test was conducted on a flat, even surface, with cones used to mark the start, finish, and turning points. A stopwatch was used to record completion time. Shorter completion times indicated higher levels of agility and explosive performance. This test is particularly relevant for sports that require frequent changes in direction and rapid responses. 2.3.4. 30-Second Wingate Test Anaerobic performance was assessed using the 30 s Wingate test on a cycle ergometer (Monark 894E, Monark Exercise AB, Vansbro, Sweden). The resistance load was set at 0.075 ×body weight (kg), following standardized procedures [22]. Participants began pedaling from a stationary position and accelerated to their maximum cadence in a seated posture. Once peak speed was reached, the predetermined brake weight was rapidly applied, and participants continued pedaling at maximal effort for 30 s. Verbal encouragement was provided throughout the test to ensure maximum exertion. Performance metrics recorded during the test included brake weight (BW), time at peak power (TPP), peak power (PP), average power (AP), minimum power (MP), power drop (PD), and total energy produced (TEP). 2.3.5. Blood Lactate Measurement Capillary blood samples were collected from the fingertip at rest and at 0, 3, 5, and 10 min following the Wingate anaerobic test. Approximately 20µL of blood was drawn at each time point using a sterile, single-use lancet. Blood lactate concentrations were analyzed immediately using a portable lactate analyzer (EKF Biosen, Barleben, Germany). Post-exercise lactate clearance rate was calculated to
Capillary blood samples were collected from the fingertip at rest and at 0, 3, 5, and 10 min following the Wingate anaerobic test. Approximately 20µL of blood was drawn at each time point using a sterile, single-use lancet. Blood lactate concentrations were analyzed immediately using a portable lactate analyzer (EKF Biosen, Barleben, Germany). Post-exercise lactate clearance rate was calculated to evaluate metabolic recovery. Specifically, V(10 min) represented the lactate clearance rate between 3 and 10 min post-
Sensors2025,25, 4875 7 of 17 exercise, calculated using the blood lactate concentrations at 3 min [La(3 min)] and 10 min [La(10 min)], and their corresponding time points, T(3 min) and T(10 min), respectively. V(10 min) = La(3 min)−La(10 min) T(10 min)−T(3 min) (1) 2.3.6. Heart Rate Monitoring Heart rate was continuously monitored using a Polar H10 heart rate chest strap (Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland). Participants wore the chest strap starting from the resting state, and heart rate was recorded continuously from pre-test through to 10 min post-30 s Wingate test. Resting heart rate and post-exercise heart rate values at 0, 3, 5, and 10 min were collected and recorded. The 0 min value reflects the maximum heart rate response immediately after exercise; the 3 and 5 min values represent the early recovery phase, characterized by rapid parasympathetic reactivation, and the 10 min point reflects the later stage of recovery when heart rate begins to stabilize. These time points were consistent with those used for blood lactate sampling, allowing for a synchronized assessment of cardiovascular and metabolic recovery. Heart rate recovery (HRR) was calculated to evaluate post-exercise autonomic recovery. This approach provides a comprehensive assessment of autonomic regulatory dynamics and is widely regarded as a reliable and non-invasive method for evaluating post-exercise recovery capacity [23–25]. Specifically, R(n min) represents the heart rate recovery rate at n minutes post-exercise, calculated based on HR at 0 min [HR(0 min)], HR at n minutes [HR(n min)], and resting heart rate [HR(rest)]. R(n min)= HR(0 min)−HR(n min) HR(0 min)−HR(rest) ×100% (2) 2.4. Statistical Analysis All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software (version 26.0, IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). The data were presented as the mean±standard deviation( x±s). The Shapiro–Wilk test was first used to assess the normality of the data distribution. One-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to compare the effects of different compression pant pressure levels on performance and recovery outcomes. When significant differences were identified, Bonferroni post hoc tests were applied for pairwise comparisons. To account for the crossover design, potential period and sequence (carryover) effects were additionally examined
Description
This study investigates the effects of compression pants on anaerobic performance and recovery.