Abstract
ckground: Foam rolling is a popular self-myofascial release (SMR) technique, yet empir- ical evidence regarding its long-term impact on cycling endurance remains inconclusive. This study investigated the effects of chronic SMR on cardiorespiratory capacity, metabolic kinetics, and mechanical performance in road cyclists.Methods: We conducted a six-month randomized controlled trial (RCT) with 32 male recreational cyclists. Both an intervention group (IG) and a control group (CG) followed a standardized training protocol. The IG additionally applied a Blackroll ® foam roller immediately after cycling training sessions. Outcomes included maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), submaximal heart rate, lactate slope, and relative mechanical power (W/kg) at aerobic and anaerobic thresholds. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models (LMM), with age included as a fixed-effect covariate to control for baseline imbalances between groups. Effect sizes were determined via marginal and conditional R 2 . Additionally, model robustness was verified through Shapiro–Wilk tests and Q–Q plots of conditional residuals.Results: No significant effects were observed for VO2max or submaximal heart rate. In contrast the IG demonstrated significant improvements in metabolic kinetics, evidenced by a reduced lactate slope (p= 0.004). Furthermore, foam rolling yielded a statistically significant positive effect on relative mechanical performance at both the aerobic (p= 0.031) and anaerobic (p= 0.007) lactate thresholds. Sensitivity analyses confirmed that these effects were independent of the age difference between groups.Conclusions: Foam rolling did not enhance all endurance-related variables but showed positive effects on metabolic kinetics and mechan- ical performance. While it did not shift systemic cardiorespiratory limits, SMR appeared to optimize performance through improved metabolic economy
the aerobic (p= 0.031) and anaerobic (p= 0.007) lactate thresholds. Sensitivity analyses confirmed that these effects were independent of the age difference between groups.Conclusions: Foam rolling did not enhance all endurance-related variables but showed positive effects on metabolic kinetics and mechan- ical performance. While it did not shift systemic cardiorespiratory limits, SMR appeared to optimize performance through improved metabolic economy and mechanical efficiency, suggesting it is a valuable supplemental tool for recovery and long-term performance maintenance in cycling. Keywords:foam rolling; massage; endurance; mechanical performance; lactate kinetics; recreational cyclists; cycling training; fascia; recovery 1. Introduction The use of foam rollers for self-myofascial release (SMR) has become a popular tech- nique among athletes and physiotherapists to reduce post-training muscular pain and improve athletic performance [1]. Foam rollers are self-massage devices by which the targeted fascia is rolled and compressed, utilizing the athlete’s own body weight to apply Sports2026,14, 82 https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14020082
Sports2026,14, 82 2 of 38 pressure to the soft tissues. This process stretches the tissue and creates friction, similar to a conventional massage [2]. The termfasciarefers to the fibrous connective tissue that penetrates and surrounds muscles, organs, bones, nerves, and blood vessels in the form of a complex, three-dimensional network [3]. Current evidence suggests that the muscu- loskeletal system should be viewed as an integrated ‘myofascial unit’, where the fascia plays a dynamic role in force transmission and intramuscular coordination [4]. Recent research has further elucidated that fascia is not merely a passive wrapping tissue but a highly specialized, sensory organ with significant roles in force transmission and proprio- ception [5,6]. The fascial system is richly innervated with mechanoreceptors and free nerve endings, making it a key player in nociception and autonomic regulation [7]. This network is a dynamic, contractile tissue rather than a passive material. Due to trauma, inflammation, or immobility, the fascia can lose flexibility and become restricted, resulting in myofascial imbalances, pain, or joint dysfunction [8]. Furthermore, the role of the extracellular matrix and the viscosity of hyaluronic acid between fascial layers have been identified as crucial factors for inter-muscular gliding and movement efficiency [4,9]. Consequently, various theories attempt to explain the benefits of myofascial release, which can be subdivided into neurological, mechanical, physiological, and psychophysiological explanations [2]. According to mechanical models, SMR may lead to a reduction in tissue adhesion, thixotropic effects, or altered tissue stiffness [10–12]. The thixotropic property of the fascial ground substance describes its ability to become more fluid when subjected to mechanical stress, which is discussed as a potential factor in reducing internal resistance during repetitive movements like cycling [13]. Physiological explanations suggest that foam rolling increases mobility, promotes blood flow, and improves vascular endothelial function. It is also postulated that SMR leads to increased parasympathetic activity, which may reduce inflammation and fascial tension, thereby aiding recovery [2,11]. These assumptions regarding enhanced microcirculation are supported by ultrasonographic research demonstrating significant increases in arterial tissue perfusion and blood flow velocity immediately following SMR [14,15]. Such an increase in volume flow theoretically expands the
improves vascular endothelial function. It is also postulated that SMR leads to increased parasympathetic activity, which may reduce inflammation and fascial tension, thereby aiding recovery [2,11]. These assumptions regarding enhanced microcirculation are supported by ultrasonographic research demonstrating significant increases in arterial tissue perfusion and blood flow velocity immediately following SMR [14,15]. Such an increase in volume flow theoretically expands the capacity for lactate transport from the working musculature into the vascular system. A very recent study by Alansari et al. further demonstrated that SMR significantly enhances metabolic recovery by accelerating lactate reduction and normalizing muscle temperature, monitored via thermal imaging, more effectively than passive recovery strategies [16]. Beyond localized effects, it is hypothesized that SMR exerts systemic influence through altered interstitial pressure and neurophysiological signaling. The compression generated by a roller is suggested to enhance local microcirculation by reducing myofascial resistance and improving the fluidity of the ground substance [13,17]. In this context, studies provide empirical evidence that SMR can significantly accelerate lactate clearance following high- intensity exercise, indicating an optimized metabolic recovery rate [18,19]. Additionally, evidence shows that even a single bout of SMR confers cardiovascular benefits, affecting peripheral and central blood pressure as well as arterial stiffness [20]. This improved blood flow is hypothesized to optimize lactate kinetics by facilitating the transport of metabolic byproducts from the interstitial space back into the vascular system. Furthermore, the integration of SMR into a training regimen may influence cardiorespi- ratory efficiency through the modulation of the autonomic nervous system. By stimulating mechanoreceptors within the fascial network, specifically Ruffini and Pacini corpuscles, SMR could potentially shift the athlete’s state toward parasympathetic dominance [21,22]. This reduction in systemic sympathetic drive may manifest as improved heart rate recovery and lower submaximal oxygen cost. Therefore, the measurement of maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) and cardiorespiratory efficiency in this study evaluates whether these https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14020082
Sports2026,14, 82 3 of 38 tissue-level interventions translate into a more efficient systemic “input” during sustained aerobic work. Neurological theories emphasize that foam rolling may reinforce analgesic effects and muscle recovery by mediating pain-modulatory systems, including diffuse noxious inhibitory control and mechanoreceptor sensitivity [2,23,24 models argue that the positive impact may be explained by increased plasma endorphins or decreased arousal levels [25]. These mechanisms are likely interlinked; for instance, a friction-induced increase in tissue temperature leads to a thixotropic response, while improved oxygenation reduces the likelihood of trigger point formation [1]. In cycling, the impact of SMR on mechanical endurance must be viewed through the lens of move- ment economy. Chronic fascial restrictions can lead to suboptimal recruitment patterns, whereas maintaining fascial fluidity may preserve the efficiency of the pedal stroke [21]. Additionally, SMR can increase the electromyographic fatigue threshold, suggesting a more efficient muscle activation pattern and a delay in the recruitment of higher-order motor units [10]. This study explores the nexus between these interventions and the lactate threshold (LT) as the ultimate integration of cardiorespiratory capacity, metabolic efficiency, and mechanical economy. Despite the popularity of these models, empirical evidence remains inconclusive, particularly regarding longitudinal effects in cycling [26]. Some research concluded that SMR does not improve muscle performance in a randomized cross-over design [27]. In contrast, other trials found that acute SMR alleviates pain and enhances motor performance and flexibility in cyclists [28,29]. Similar conflicts exist in other sports; while effects on muscle function remain unclear, a growing body of literature suggests that SMR alleviates muscle soreness and improves endurance recovery [2]. This lack of clarity stems from the infancy of fascial research, a shortage of high-quality longitudinal studies, and the diversity of research protocols applied across studies [2,11,26]. Such conflicting results can also be observed in studies focusing on sports other than cycling. A systematic meta-analysis of the scholarly literature conducted by Wiewelhove et al. points out that, on the one hand, the effects of foam rolling on muscle function remain unclear due to inconclusive empirical results, while, on the other hand, a growing body of literature
[2,11,26]. Such conflicting results can also be observed in studies focusing on sports other than cycling. A systematic meta-analysis of the scholarly literature conducted by Wiewelhove et al. points out that, on the one hand, the effects of foam rolling on muscle function remain unclear due to inconclusive empirical results, while, on the other hand, a growing body of literature suggests that self- myofascial release using foam rollers or roller massage sticks alleviates muscle soreness. As the authors conclude, post-rolling improves endurance and strength performance and reduces perceived muscle pain [2]. The present study investigated the effects of a six-month foam rolling intervention using the Blackroll ® (BLACKROLL AG, Bottighofen, Switzerland) on endurance indica- tors in cyclists, bridging the gap between localized tissue treatment and global athletic output. We developed a comprehensive framework to test the primary assumption that SMR improves endurance-related variables. First, we focus on cardiorespiratory capacity, which reflects the systemic “input” of the athlete via maximum oxygen uptake (H1) and cardiorespiratory efficiency via submaximal heart rate at fixed lactate thresholds (H2). Second, we address metabolic kinetics (H3) by analyzing the lactate curve progression between 100 and 250 watts. Finally, we investigate mechanical performance (H4) at the aerobic and anaerobic lactate thresholds. This parameter represents the ultimate integration of an athlete’s cardiorespiratory capacity, metabolic efficiency, and mechanical economy. By analyzing these four pillars, this study seeks to determine whether the chronic SMR provides a measurable ergogenic advantage. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14020082
Sports2026,14, 82 4 of 38 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Design The study design consisted of a randomized controlled trial (RCT) over a six-month period, which is widely regarded as the gold standard for investigating the efficacy or effectiveness of a treatment or intervention [30,31]. Recruitment took place between mid- March and mid-September (weeks 12–38). First, to ensure the reliability and objectivity of the measurements, a preliminary trial with twelve recreational cyclists was conducted, organized by our research team, to standardize all experimental procedures including the precise control and standardization of the seat position on the road bikes. These internal pre-tests served as a crucial quality control measure to ensure consistent biomechanical conditions for all participants throughout the trial. Two weeks prior to data collection (calendar weeks 38–39), a systematic bike-fitting was conducted for all participants to optimize cycling position regarding performance, com- fort, and injury prevention. Since saddle geometry significantly governs pressure distribu- tion [32], muscle recruitment, and intermuscular dynamics [33], strict standardization was essential to eliminate positioning bias [34]. The adjustment process followed a two-stage protocol. In the first, static stage, four anatomical reference points—the greater trochanter, lateral epicondyle, lateral malleolus, and the fifth metatarsal head—were marked. The static foundation consisted of a horizontally leveled saddle and a modern cleat positioning centered between the first and fifth metatarsal heads [35,36], deviating from the traditional positioning according to Silberman et al. [37]. Saddle height was set to 107–109% of inseam length [38], while saddle setback was standardized using the KOPS method (Knee Over Pedal Spindle), ensuring a plumb line from the patella passed through the pedal spindle at the 3 o’clock crank position [39]. Target parameters included a trunk inclination of 40 ◦ –45 ◦ to the horizontal [40], a knee flexion angle of 35 ◦ at the bottom dead center [41], and a plantar flexion between 15 ◦ and 30 ◦ [36]. In the second, dynamic stage, the position was validated using Kinovea analysis software (Version 0.9.3) [42]. Participants were tested on their own bicycles, with the back wheel mounted on a magnetic resistance indoor trainer. Following
[40], a knee flexion angle of 35 ◦ at the bottom dead center [41], and a plantar flexion between 15 ◦ and 30 ◦ [36]. In the second, dynamic stage, the position was validated using Kinovea analysis software (Version 0.9.3) [42]. Participants were tested on their own bicycles, with the back wheel mounted on a magnetic resistance indoor trainer. Following a 5 min warm-up at 100 W, angular stability was verified over a 60 s measurement period at 150 W and a cadence of 80 RPM. Due to the high experience level of the ambitious recreational athletes, only minor adaptations were generally required. This dual approach of static reference measurement and dynamic tracking ensured that power output and VO2max reflected the participants’ actual physiological capacity, free from biomechanical confounding factors. This preparatory phase, including final recruitment, bike fitting and training instructions, was finalized for all subjects by the end of September (calendar weeks 37–40). Baseline assessments were conducted in early October (weeks 41–42), immediately prior to the intervention launch in mid-October (week 43). The study design included two follow-up assessments. The main post-test, which was the second follow-up assess- ment, was conducted six months after the intervention began, in April (week 13 for the intervention group and weeks 13–14 for the control group). An interim post-test was also scheduled halfway through the intervention, three months after the trial began. However, the interim assessment at three months was intentionally restricted to body composition and biomedical indicators, such as BMI, weight distribution as well as leg circumference. This decision was primarily based on the hypothesized time course of fascial adaptation; while SMR is known to induce immediate thixotropic responses in the fascial ground substance [13], the structural remodeling of the complex, three-dimensional network of collagen fibers is considered a chronic process [3]. Evidence suggests that long-term fascia training (spanning six months to two years) is required to substantially improve movement patterns and coordination, resulting in more efficient muscle function and improved overall https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14020082
network of collagen fibers is considered a chronic process [3]. Evidence suggests that long-term fascia training (spanning six months to two years) is required to substantially improve movement patterns and coordination, resulting in more efficient muscle function and improved overall https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14020082
Sports2026,14, 82 5 of 38 performance [21]. By contrast, variables related to performance and endurance, such as oxygen uptake, watts per kg or heart rate at different lactate thresholds were measured exclusively at the beginning of the trial (baseline) and during the final post-test six months later. To evaluate whether long-term myofascial release leads to these systemic changes in cardiorespiratory efficiency and metabolic kinetics, a six-month observation period was deemed more appropriate to capture these structural adaptations. Additionally, this approach minimized the physiological burden of repeated maximal exercise testing and ensured high participant compliance throughout the study. Figure of the project timeline. Figure 1.Timeline of the project, with blue bars marking the periods of specific project stages (own illustration). In our study 32 male recreational road race cyclists—16 participants were randomly assigned to an intervention group, in which they applied a Blackroll ® (BLACKROLL AG, Bottighofen, Switzerland) foam roller immediately after two tightly controlled cycling training sessions per week, and 16 to a control group, who followed the same cycling training protocol but without using the Blackroll ® as a post-rolling myofascial release technique or any other type of massage. The intervention group was instructed to use the Blackroll ® on different body parts according to a tightly controlled protocol. 2.2. Recruitment Protocol and Selection Criteria As first step the statistical power calculations were performed using the free software G*Power (Version 3.1.9.7) (Heinrich-Heine-University, Düsseldorf, Germany) [43]. The target parameters were set to an anticipated medium effect size of Cohen’sd= 0.50, a two-tailed significance level ofα= 0.05, and a desired statistical power of 1−β= 0.80. The a priori power analysis determined that a required total sample size (Nreq) of approximately 128 participants would have been necessary to achieve the target power under the assump- tion of an infinite population. The total population was strictly limited based on predefined inclusion criteria. This total population ofNPop= 46 individuals was identified beforehand through a questionnaire distributed to all relevant associations in Tyrol, Austria. The selection of participants was guided by predefined inclusion criteria. We used a non-probabilistic sampling procedure in the form of consecutive
under the assump- tion of an infinite population. The total population was strictly limited based on predefined inclusion criteria. This total population ofNPop= 46 individuals was identified beforehand through a questionnaire distributed to all relevant associations in Tyrol, Austria. The selection of participants was guided by predefined inclusion criteria. We used a non-probabilistic sampling procedure in the form of consecutive sampling. To qualify for the study, athletes needed to be recreational cyclists aged between 25 and 59 with consistent training for at least three years. A primary requirement was year-round cycling training with a frequency of 3–4 sessions per week, including mandatory indoor training during the winter months to ensure no seasonal interruptions. Additionally, participants were required to provide a verified training documentation (digital or diary-based) covering at least the https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14020082
Sports2026,14, 82 6 of 38 12 months prior to the start of the study. Furthermore, they were required to maintain an average weekly training load of 8–10 h, which corresponds to a self-reported mileage of approximately 250–300 km per week during the season and a total annual distance of approximately 12,000–15,000 km. Participants had to prove that no interruptions exceeding six weeks occurred in the past three years. Other criteria included experience in structured, power-based training, a spiroergometry test completed within the past two years, and at least six months of experience using bilateral power measuring pedals. Participants also had to be naïve to myofascial massage techniques with a foam roller prior to the trial. Exclusion rules were established to enhance participant safety and ensure sample homogeneity. Cyclists were not eligible if they held a professional cycling license or if they had any of the following conditions: osteoporosis, thrombosis, fibromyalgia, disk injury, soft tissue rheumatism, uncontrolled hypertension, or joint implants in the hip or knee. To address the risk of bias through self-reporting, the absence of these conditions and the suitability for high-intensity exertion had to be confirmed via a mandatory medical clearance (Health Certificate) issued by a sports physician within two months prior to the start of the study. Participants could also be excluded during the trial if they were diagnosed with a new medical condition, became ill, withdrew their consent, did not comply with the protocol, or experienced intervention-related complications such as adverse reactions. The study focused on adult male recreational cyclists, who were recruited in collabora- tion with cycling clubs across Tyrol, Austria. To reach the target population, an invitation email was circulated to all 35 officially registered clubs in the region, with enrollment taking place between mid-March and mid-September. Although female athletes were initially considered for inclusion, the limited number of respondents (only three women) led to their exclusion from the sample. A total of 36 men enrolled and were randomly divided into two equal groups of 18 participants each (intervention vs. control). Two participants of each group were excluded from the analyses because they dropped
Description
The study explores the impact of foam rolling on cycling performance.