Abstract
unning enjoys worldwide popularity across age groups and sexes. Because of this, it serves as an excellent benchmark to compare male and female performance across the lifespan with respect to developmental progression, peak athletic performance, and age- related regression. The purpose of this review is to examine and discuss how sex and aging affect running performance in sprints, middle-distance running, and long-distance running. Based on the scientific literature and running world records from age 5–99, male running performance exceeds that of females across the lifespan, with the greatest divide beginning at puberty, which remains through old age. However, there appear to be few differences in the rate of progression in youth and the age of peak performance, but it is unclear whether the rate of decline, beginning in middle age, differs by sex and sport for record performances. Future analyses should examine changes in all running performances across the lifespan. Keywords:sex difference; pediatric exercise; human performance; aging; marathon; fundamental movement skills; adolescence; puberty; track and field 1. Introduction Evolutionarily speaking, humans are seemingly born to run, with anatomical, physi- ological, and cognitive adaptations that favor endurance exercise [1]. Those latter adap- tations predominantly benefit performance in distance running events (5 km or longer) but also influence performance in shorter running and even sprint events. While humans
aging; marathon; fundamental movement skills; adolescence; puberty; track and field 1. Introduction Evolutionarily speaking, humans are seemingly born to run, with anatomical, physi- ological, and cognitive adaptations that favor endurance exercise [1]. Those latter adap- tations predominantly benefit performance in distance running events (5 km or longer) but also influence performance in shorter running and even sprint events. While humans are regarded as comparatively slow compared to most other species [2], the pursuit of sporting excellence still drives the desire to achieve excellence in all sports. Therefore, it is no surprise that world records are tracked in nearly every possible endeavor in both men and women across the lifespan. Modern society has allowed amateur athletes as young as 5 years old (yo) and older than 100 yo to compete and achieve records in numerous sports. As suggested, few sports are as fundamental to humans as running, and, as such, records are maintained for events ranging from 50 m to longer than 100 miles, with contin- uous improvements since the 1970s [3,4]. With these improvements, world records have proliferated in all events for both males and females as young as 5–6 yo. While progression in elite record performances has slowed in many running events, Masters (age 35 years and older) world records continue to improve more steeply, indicating that age-related declines in physical performance are perhaps less significant than believed [5]. Meanwhile, the emergence and rate of progression for junior athletes (13–18 yo) seem to be accelerating, though success at the senior elite level remains elusive for many athletes [6–11]. Encyclopedia2025,5, 88 https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5030088
Encyclopedia2025,5, 88 2 of 21 The proliferation of advanced training methods [12] and their application, as well as new technology [13], appears, in part, to be driving performance progression across age groups. Nonetheless, the gap between adult men and women has stayed relatively stable. Regardless of the underlying reasons for improved running performances, running records provide a rawer representation of human performance than records in other sports, like cycling, which is more influenced by external technological factors. As such, running records are truer to the evolved purpose of the body. Many studies have examined various aspects of running performance across distances between elite men and women [14–19] and across ages for boys and girls [20–23] and men and women [5,23–29]. Numerous studies have modeled various aspects of the running dis- tance spectrum [16,17,22,23,25–28,30]. However, we know of no review that has attempted to assimilate and summarize the major studies for review and discussion of our current understanding of the influence of sex and aging on running across the lifespan. Therefore, the purposes of this review are to • Review the determinants of running events for sprints, middle-distance running, and long-distance running; • Summarize the major developmental changes that occur in youth to adulthood and then senescence; • Note the known sex differences in running performance across developmental stages; •Discuss the progression and eventual regression of running performance across the lifespan; •Propose future research questions to advance our understanding of these topics. 2. Defining Terminology, Development, and Performance The breadth and complexity of this topic require defining the terminology, develop- mental stages, and performance aspects of the sport of running. For the purposes of this paper, we use the National Institutes of Health’s definition of biological sex as a multi- dimensional biological construct based on anatomy, physiology, genetics, and hormones. Simple age demarcations between developmental stages, however, are more challenging. Definitions and distinctions within the literature vary in nomenclature, milestones, and de- velopmental changes such as the onset of puberty, age of peak performance, and sports age groups [14–18]. Therefore, we have assimilated several sources and integrated these with the accepted
biological construct based on anatomy, physiology, genetics, and hormones. Simple age demarcations between developmental stages, however, are more challenging. Definitions and distinctions within the literature vary in nomenclature, milestones, and de- velopmental changes such as the onset of puberty, age of peak performance, and sports age groups [14–18]. Therefore, we have assimilated several sources and integrated these with the accepted age groupings in running, as reflected in world record running performances. The developmental stages used throughout the paper are as follows: • Childhood (Ch)—from age 5 to 10 yo—which typically refers to the years preceding puberty. •Adolescence (AD)—from age 11 to 18 yo—which typically marks the beginning of puberty to early adulthood. Where appropriate, we delineate early AD (EAD) as 11–14 yo and late (LAD) as 15–18 yo to better capture pubertal changes. • Early Adulthood (EA)—from age 19 to 35 years. This is the period where running performance peaks and is generally maintained for both elite and age-group athletes. •Middle Adulthood (MA)—from age 36 to 55 years. During this period, most athletes can maintain a very high level of performance with minimal performance loss. • Late Adulthood (LA)—from age 56 years and beyond; this is the period where per- formance declines become more noticeable, with significant and accelerated declines after age 70. Running performance is typically measured solely by time; thus, world records are reported as the lowest time over a given distance on a certified course. Prior to the age of 21, records and competitive events are often separated in 2-year increments, so ages 5–6, 7–8, 9–10, etc., compete together. After age 20, many sports, including running and triathlon, delineate ages in 5-year blocks, especially for Masters runners of 35 years and older; these
Encyclopedia2025,5, 88 3 of 21 would be 35+, 40+, 45+, etc. However, to streamline data presentation for running record data, we present age groups in 10-year ranges after age 30 with developmental ranges highlighted and limit our running analysis to age 99 due to the limited number of records for 100 and older. Finally, this paper will discuss what is known regarding the determinants or advan- tages influencing performance across different events. In some cases, we will refer to specific physiological or anatomical measurements, but for childhood, we will also refer to fundamental movement skills (FMS). These are basic components that make up the complex sports skills needed for daily activities, as well as success in running. These include, but are not limited to, the following: jumping, skipping, galloping (locomotor), static and dynamic balance (postural), and throwing, catching, and kicking (object control) [19]. As discussed later, even small differences in FMSs can confer significant sporting advantages as well as encourage continued participation in exercise and sports. 3. Competitive Running Distances and Determinants Prior to any discussion of the determinants of running performance, we need to clearly define the distance demarcations in running. Regardless of whether events take place on a measured track or open road, competition distance typically consists of sprints, middle- distance events, and long-distance events. While there is justification for consistency in terminology in sports and research [20], for simplicity’s sake, we will rely on the World Athletics-defined distance categories forsprints—100 m, 200 m, 400 m;middle-distance running—800 m, 1500 m (or mile), and 3000 m; andlong-distance running—5000 m,10,000 m, half-marathon, and marathon [21]. However, to distinguish between long-distance track- specific and road events, we definemiddle–long-distance runningas 5000–10,000 m andlong- distance runningas half-marathons (13.1 km) and marathons (26.2 km). Aside from distance delineations for the various events, physiologists also classify them based on the energy or ATP demands and how they are met. It must be noted that energy contributions for many events are at best approximations based on a range of sources and likely underestimate the true “anaerobic” systems in many athletes [22]. 3.1. Physiological Determinants of Sprint
Aside from distance delineations for the various events, physiologists also classify them based on the energy or ATP demands and how they are met. It must be noted that energy contributions for many events are at best approximations based on a range of sources and likely underestimate the true “anaerobic” systems in many athletes [22]. 3.1. Physiological Determinants of Sprint and Middle-Distance Running Sports performance is dictated by numerous factors, including skill and coordination, neuromuscular and bioenergetic systems, vascular and cardiorespiratory function, and psychological factors. This section briefly reviews the most salient factors influencing sprint and middle-distance events, where competitors often overlap and where “anaerobic energy systems” either play a dominant or significant role, and neuromuscular and/or biomechanical factors are essential for achieving optimal performance [20]. 3.1.1. Sprint Events (100–400 m) The determinants for 100–200 m sprint distances are simple, relying on high muscular force applied at the start, rapid acceleration to the maximum speed, and eventual decelera- tion. For example, world-class 100 m sprinters typically accelerate for ~60 m before slowing in the final 40 m. The high forces needed to accelerate explosively require elite performers to possess a high percentage of Type II muscle fibers. One-hundred-meter sprints are powered primarily by the ATP-PCr and glycolytic energy systems [23] but also include a significant aerobic energy contribution [24], which increases with sprint distance [25]. Biomechanical and neuromuscular factors are critical to success and intimately tied to technique [26]. High-performance sprinters also possess a greater stride length (SL), particularly within the first 20 m, and exhibit greater ground reaction forces (GRFs) with minimal ground contact time (GCT). In addition, 400 m specialists possess a high anaerobic capacity and
Encyclopedia2025,5, 88 4 of 21 buffering ability [26–28]. Finally, while short reaction times are essential for performance, it appears that at the elite level, this is not a limiting factor within each sex category [26]; nevertheless, at least at the elite level, men demonstrate significantly lower reaction times than women [29,31]. 3.1.2. Middle Distance (800–3000 m) Middle-distance events are perhaps the most complex and least understood running events. They typically last from <2 min to 10 min and are run at or above . V O2 Max[22,26,27]. The actual and perceived levels of effort are often regarded as supra-maximal intense “anaer- obic” efforts. However, research indicates that the aerobic energy contribution for even the 800 m run is at least 50% aerobic, with greater contributions for sub-elite runners, but it is likely predominantly aerobic by 1500 m and beyond [22,25,27,30]. Therefore, it should not be surprising that the training for these events is predominantly aerobic endurance vol- ume [22]. The major determinants of performance for these events include an exceptional . V O2 Maxand the corresponding velocity (v . V O2 Max), as well as lactate threshold (LT) and the velocity at LT (vLT). There is also significant muscle force development and anaerobic (fast) glycolytic energy production, particularly for the 800 m run, and less for the 1500 and 3000 m events [26,27,30,32]. The latter factors make buffering capacity an important determinant of performance for these events [33]. Additionally, the development of speed and force in these events favors runners with greater Type II musclefibers [22,26,27] . Fi- nally, tactical aspects such as drafting have become more important in these and longer events [27]. 3.2. Physiological Determinants of Long-Distance Running Long-distance running events can be a relative term, but they typically involve events from 5000 m and up, where the aerobic energy system dominates and both central and peripheral factors are integrated to optimize performance. While one could argue that any activity lasting more than 3 min constitutes aerobic endurance activity, the determinants of performance for true endurance running rely almost solely on the aerobic system with minimal or virtually
typically involve events from 5000 m and up, where the aerobic energy system dominates and both central and peripheral factors are integrated to optimize performance. While one could argue that any activity lasting more than 3 min constitutes aerobic endurance activity, the determinants of performance for true endurance running rely almost solely on the aerobic system with minimal or virtually no significant “anaerobic” ATP contribution [27,34,35]. As described by Sandford and Stellingwurff [20], middle–long- and long-distance events are run at or below . VO2 Maxand at or above critical velocity, where aerobic ATP provides 85% or more of the energy. The general performance determinants of long-distance running are detailed elsewhere suffice it to say, regardless of distance, an adequately high . VO2 Maxis critical to performance, and within a homogeneous group of individuals, other factors such as the LT and running economy (RE) help determine the final performance velocity [33]. The relative importance of those other factors, however, varies somewhat based on the distance. 3.2.1. Middle–Long Distance (3000–10,000 m) Performance in events lasting ~8 min or longer requires an exceptional . V O2 Maxand velocity at max (v . V O2 Max), as well as vLT, but also significant muscle force development and anaerobic (fast) glycolytic energy production, particular for the 3000 m run, and increasing less for 5000 m and 10,000 m events [26]. The latter factors make buffering capacity an important determinant of performance for events like the 3000 m run or steeplechase [33]. 3.2.2. Long Distance (Half-Marathon and Marathon) Like in middle–long-distance events, performance in events lasting an hour or longer requires a relatively high . V O2 Max. However, within a given cohort of athletes, . V O2 Max accounts for just 59% of the variance [33], which ranges from 70 to 85 mL.kg −1 .min −1 [36]. Assuming a sufficiently high . V O2 Max, vLT and RE are the predominant factors de-
Encyclopedia2025,5, 88 5 of 21 termining performance, with thermoregulation being another factor as environmental temperature increases. 4. Running Performance During Adolescent Development “Children are not small adults” is a common aphorism that holds true in sport, as well as in medicine. Throughout childhood, boys and girls grow in all aspects of their bodies while gaining an increased ability to use the bodies they develop. In this section, we highlight the most salient differences in performance between boys and girls and how biological development influences both sprint and endurance running across early and late adolescent development. For a summary of the major development changes across the lifespan, please see Table. Table 1.Summary of major physical, physiological, and biomechanical changes across the lifespan for males and females engaged in regular formal training, as well as the relative impacts on running distance. Differences are based on the authors’ interpretation and inferences drawn from the ref- erences presented in the paper, as well as professional experience. Adulthood = early and middle adulthood.♂= male,♀= female. Childhood Adolescence Adulthood Late Adulthood Running Event Advantage ♂vs.♀ ∆ ♂vs.♀ ∆ ♂vs.♀ ∆ ♂vs.♀ Physical Height > ♂↑ ♀↔ >> ↔ >> ↔ >> Sprint, Mid, Long Weight > ↑ >> ↔ >> ↑ >> Body Fat < ♂↓ ♀↑ << ↔ << ↑ << Sprint, Mid, Long Muscle Mass > ↑ >> ↔ >> ↓ >> Strength/Power > ↑ >> ↔ >> ↓ >> Sprint, Mid, Long Heart Size > ↑ >> ↔ >> ↔ >> Sprint, Mid, Long Higher SV Neurophysiological Type I/II Ratio ? ? < ↔ < ↔ < Long . VO 2 Max(L/min) > ↑ > ↔ >> ↓ >> Mid, Long Max Stroke Volume > ↑ > ↔ >> ↔ >> Mid, Long Max Heart Rate = ↑ = ↔ < ↓↓ < Mid, Long a-vO 2 difference = ↑ = ↔ = ↔ = Mid, Long Hb Mass =? ↑ > ↔ > ↔ > Mid, Long Lactate Threshold = ↑ = ↔ = ↔ = Mid, Long Peak Lactate = ↑ = ↔ = ↓ = Sprint, Mid Glycolytic Ability =
Max Heart Rate = ↑ = ↔ < ↓↓ < Mid, Long a-vO 2 difference = ↑ = ↔ = ↔ = Mid, Long Hb Mass =? ↑ > ↔ > ↔ > Mid, Long Lactate Threshold = ↑ = ↔ = ↔ = Mid, Long Peak Lactate = ↑ = ↔ = ↓ = Sprint, Mid Glycolytic Ability = ↑ = ↔ = ↓ = Sprint, Mid Running Economy = ↑? = ↔ = ↔ = Mid, Long Biomechanical Stride Length > ↑ >> ↔ >> ↓ >> Sprint, Mid, Long Stride Rate = ↔ = ↔ = ↓ = Ground Contact Time =? ↓ < ↔ < ↑ < Sprint, Mid, Long Ground Reaction Force =? ↑ < ↔ < ↓ < Sprint, Mid, Long Small but significant running performance gaps appear as early as 5 yo between boys and girls [37–39] but remain stable until about age 13, before widening through early adulthood [40–43]. The underlying reasons for the performance gap at the younger ages are not fully understood, but evidence indicates that males experience an early “mini-puberty” that boosts growth after infancy [44], increasing skeletal muscle mass and strength [45,46] while reducing body fat [47]. It also likely accounts for the higher cardiac mass seen in boys [48–50]. These significant biological differences are likely enhanced by boys’ propen- sity for greater physical play [51], which itself may widen the physical fitness gap between
Encyclopedia2025,5, 88 6 of 21 boys and girls [52]. It is worth emphasizing, however, that the propensity to engage in physical activity (PA) is not merely a biological drive, as evidence indicates there is also a significant sociocultural and economic influence [53,54]. Nonetheless, the determinants of early sports success appear driven less by specific event determinants and more by developmental differences. 4.1. Childhood: It Is About the Fundamental Movement Skills Sources vary on clear childhood developmental age delineations prior to AD, and there is a paucity of physiologic athletic data for Ch, particularly in girls. This is pertinent because there is a significant, albeit small to moderate, association between FMS competency and PA from early childhood into late AD [55–58]. Low FMS scores are associated with less physical activity and lower physical fitness [59]. Though it remains unclear whether competency begets PA or PA drives the development of FMS [56], research by Kokstejn et al. [57] noted that FMS was a significant mediator of the relationship between physical fitness and dribbling speed in early AD yo soccer players. Thus, greater development of specific fundamental movement skills at an earlier age would certainly provide advantages for sports dependent on those skills. In addition to higher FMS scores, biomechanical and neuromuscular differences may also help separate high-performing children. For example, in a sample of nearly2600 boys and girls aged 6–18 (i.e., Ch and AD), Kampmiller et al. [42] reported year-on-year increases in SL and speed in boys and girls until the age of 13, after which SL plateaus in girls but not boys, likely due to a plateau in girls’ height; the latter plateau had also been reported earlier by Papaiakovou and colleagues [43]. Other important factors in running speed, like step frequency and GCT, appear more mixed. Thus, we can surmise that early success in sprint events is likely related to higher locomotor-related FMSs, which could influence neuromuscular coordination. Additionally, the largely linear changes in many determinants of sprinting, like height, underscore the importance of even short time horizons in developing children. This is borne out by the observation that the
frequency and GCT, appear more mixed. Thus, we can surmise that early success in sprint events is likely related to higher locomotor-related FMSs, which could influence neuromuscular coordination. Additionally, the largely linear changes in many determinants of sprinting, like height, underscore the importance of even short time horizons in developing children. This is borne out by the observation that the oldest children in a specific age category typically outperform their younger peers [60]. Research on endurance running in this age group up until at least puberty supports the notion that pre-pubertal children are generalists. Of note, good runners in this age group also display superior maximal running speed and run at a higher fraction of that speed than poor runners [61]. The consensus appears to be that children in this age group are highly aerobic, while possessing low glycolytic ability, either due to reduced enzyme availability and/or reduced recruitment of Type II muscle fibers [62–65]. From the available literature, a relatively high . V O2 Max(>50 mL/kg/min) is typical in good runners, and the relative . V O2 Maxremains stable until at least puberty [65–67], but contrary to long-held views, it does appear trainable [67]. There remains a persistent dogma that children are significantly less economical than adults due to a shorter SL and compensatory higher SR, higher respiratory metabolic cost, greater reliance on fatty acids, and a lower stroke volume (SV) and cardiac output [64,68]. However, when scaled to body size and relative work intensities, the differences seem to disappear [69]. While evidence for improved economy with development or training is generally lacking, running velocity at LT improves in runners as young as age 5 [56,70]. Therefore, it appears that both central and peripheral factors may influence performance prior to puberty. In summary, even in Ch, boys demonstrate a small but significant performance ad- vantage over girls [37–39,71,72] that remains stable until puberty. Nonetheless, high- performing early childhood sprint and endurance athletes likely possess greater compe- tency in FMS locomotor abilities, which encourage greater participation in sports. As generalists, children likely improve more in the sports they participate in.
Description
This review discusses the impact of sex and aging on running performance across the lifespan.