Abstract
ackground/Objectives: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of various muscle taping applications on running efficiency. Methods: Recreational runners (N = 14; 7 women; age = 22.80±4.61 years; BMI = 25.08±3.97 kg/m 2 ) completed four bouts of treadmill running at a preferred speed. Each bout used a different taping technique, as follows: control (no tape), athletic tape, Kinesio tape, and a novel spring- type technique of Kinesio tape. Oxygen consumption, muscle activation of the rectus femoris and biceps femoris, and stride frequency were observed during each bout to assess running efficiency. The data for these variables were analyzed with repeated-measures ANOVAs (α= 0.05). Results: There were no differences among any of the four conditions for oxygen consumption (p= 0.232,η 2= 0.103), muscle activation of the rectus femoris (p= 0.173,η 2 = 0.118) or biceps femoris (p= 0.085,η 2= 0.184), or stride frequency (p= 0.230, η 2 = 0.107). Conclusions: None of the three taping methods tested in this study had a significant impact on oxygen consumption, agonist muscle activation, or stride frequency during short running bouts at a preferred speed compared to a control condition. There appeared to be no ergogenic benefit to the use of these taping techniques during this manner of activity. Runners opting to use a taping method to enhance joint stability at the knee during preferred-intensity running activity may do so without any
muscle activation, or stride frequency during short running bouts at a preferred speed compared to a control condition. There appeared to be no ergogenic benefit to the use of these taping techniques during this manner of activity. Runners opting to use a taping method to enhance joint stability at the knee during preferred-intensity running activity may do so without any substantial impact on their running efficiency. Keywords:biceps femoris; electromyography; H:Q ratio; Kinesio tape; rectus femoris; stride frequency; treadmill; VO2 1. Introduction Musculoskeletal injuries to athletes are common and represent a threat to continued participation in sports and physical activity [1]. Runners are particularly susceptible to lower-body injuries, with one recent systematic review producing estimates of ~20 such injuries per 100 runners [2]. Some injuries include pain in the iliotibial band, Achilles tendonitis, and plantar fasciitis [3]. One of the more common injuries for runners is patellofemoral pain, characterized by pain in the knee at the site of the patella during flexion and weight-bearing activity [4]. Recent evidence estimates that patellofemoral pain is prevalent in 16.7% of runners [3]. This relatively high injury rate may limit or even prevent running activity, making sufficient physical activity difficult to attain and limiting long-term fitness and health [5,6]. Taping techniques with rigid athletic tape are commonly used in rehabilitative settings to limit the range of motion (ROM) at a variety of joints and prevent further aggravation of athletes’ injured muscles, tendons, or other joint structures [7]. Increasing joint stability without complete immobilization enables movement with a lower risk of re-injury [8]. Physiologia2025,5, 1 https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010001
Physiologia2025,5, 1 1 of 11 Kinesio tape is a variety of tape which can be applied in a way that supports muscles and joints without restricting range of motion [9]. Unlike traditional athletic tape, Kinesio tape is made of material with elastic properties and can be stretched up to 160% of its initial length [10]. The tension in the Kinesio tape that results from its application on the skin is purported to reduce pain by limiting the input of nociceptors in the skin [9] and also to improve blood flow in the tissue to encourage the healing of damaged muscle [11]. The recoil of stretched Kinesio tape also provides supplemental force production for the muscle it is aligned with. This allows practitioners to apply the tape on the skin so that the desired amount of tension is produced over the joint to aid in muscle contraction for functional and stability purposes. An increase in proprioception via the activation of the cutaneous receptors is also believed to contribute to enhanced muscle function [12]. Typical Kinesio tape placement at the knee incorporates taping across the anterior aspect of the knee [13]. This orientation of Kinesio tape supplements the force produced by the quadriceps muscle group during knee extension and opposes the force produced by the hamstring muscle group during knee flexion. The allocation of force in this way may be unfavorable during continuous aerobic exercise such as running, which relies on both knee flexion and extension throughout the exercise. The quadriceps group has a greater force-generating capability than its antagonist hamstring group, a characterization termed the H:Q ratio [14,15]. The imbalance in strength between these two muscle groups may be amplified with traditional Kinesio tape application along the anterior aspect of the knee. However, it may be possible to offset this strength imbalance between the quadriceps and hamstrings by instead applying Kinesio tape to the posterior aspect of the knee. In this novel technique, the Kinesio tape would act as a spring to enhance the function of the hamstring group. Taping techniques, including the application of Kinesio tape, may have some beneficial
knee. However, it may be possible to offset this strength imbalance between the quadriceps and hamstrings by instead applying Kinesio tape to the posterior aspect of the knee. In this novel technique, the Kinesio tape would act as a spring to enhance the function of the hamstring group. Taping techniques, including the application of Kinesio tape, may have some beneficial effect on muscle function in athletes (for review, see Lau and Cheng, 2019) [16]. Yet, the impact of taping techniques on performance metrics associated with aerobic endurance exercise remains unexplored. Low-cost strategies to improve performance while also offering previously cited benefits (decreased patellofemoral pain, improved blood and lymphatic flow, etc.) are relevant to this population of athletes, who report high rates of overuse injury [3,17]. The muscle activation required to run at a given pace and the oxygen consumption required to sustain this running are of particular interest, since this mechanism of action for Kinesio tape has not been reported upon. Runners may opt to use taping techniques such as athletic taping for added joint stability, or to use Kinesio tape to reduce pain or improve muscle perfusion. There is also the potential for taping techniques (i.e., the spring method) to be used for ergogenic benefit by offsetting the H:Q ratio found in the muscles which control the knee. Taping at the knee joint may be the most commonly considered due to the prominence of injuries and chronic pain there [3]. Whatever the motivation to implement these different taping techniques, the impact of these strategies on running efficiency, and, hence, running performance, should also be considered [18]. No published research to date has examined the effects of different taping techniques on running efficiency. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if different commonly used taping techniques (the use of athletic tape and Kinesio tape) and one novel taping technique (spring) for the knee during treadmill running would impact the exercise efficiency of the running activity. 2. Results In total, 14 participants were recruited (7 men/7 women; 18 years≤age≤36 years). Participant demographic information is provided in Table. All 14
to determine if different commonly used taping techniques (the use of athletic tape and Kinesio tape) and one novel taping technique (spring) for the knee during treadmill running would impact the exercise efficiency of the running activity. 2. Results In total, 14 participants were recruited (7 men/7 women; 18 years≤age≤36 years). Participant demographic information is provided in Table. All 14 participants who were recruited completed the study, and there were no missing data for these participants.
Physiologia2025,5, 1 2 of 11 The data in the AT condition for EMGrectusviolated the assumption of normality (p= 0.021for the Shapiro–Wilk test). All other data were approximately normally dis- tributed (p> 0.05). No differences were noted between conditions for RPE (F1.57, 20.36= 0.041,p= 0.928, η 2 = 0.003) or HR (F3, 36= 0.024,p= 0.995,η 2 = 0.002). There was no effect of condition on the variables VO2(F3, 39= 1.492,p= 0.232, η 2 = 0.103), EMGrectus(F3, 39= 1.747,p= 0.173,η 2= 0.118), EMG biceps(F1.63, 21.16= 2.924, p= 0.085,η 2 = 0.184), or SF (F2.10, 27.33= 1.551,p= 0.230,η 2= 0.107). Detailed results for VO2, the EMG values, and SF are presented visually in FigureA–C, respectively.Physiologia 2024, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 4 Figure 1. Differences in VO 2 (A), muscle activation (B), and stride frequency (C) between taping conditions. Abbreviations: VO 2 = oxygen consumption; AT = athletic tape condition; KT = Kinesio tape condition, applied to anterior knee; spring = application of Kinesio tape to posterior knee. Bars represent mean values for each condition and whiskers represent standard error about the mean. 3. Discussion 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 Control AT KT Spring VO 2 (mL/kg/min) Condition A 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 Control AT KT Spring Muscle Activation (μV) Condition Rectus femorisBiceps femoris B 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.80 Control AT KT Spring Stride Frequency (s/stride) Condition C Figure 1.Differences in VO 2(A), muscle activation (B), and stride frequency (C) between taping conditions. Abbreviations: VO 2= oxygen consumption; AT = athletic tape condition; KT = Kinesio tape condition, applied to anterior knee; spring = application of Kinesio tape to posterior knee. Bars represent mean values for each condition and whiskers represent standard error about the mean.
Physiologia2025,5, 1 3 of 11 Table 1.Demographic characteristics of participants. Participant Characteristics M (SD) Age (years) 22.80 (4.61) Height (cm) 169.33 (8.55) Mass (kg) 72.61 (16.80) BMI (kg/m 2 ) 25.08 (3.97) Running activity (km/week) 5.72 (4.69) HR following recovery 88.64 (16.08) Note: BMI = body mass index and HR = heart rate. The mean value (M) for the sample and the standard deviation (SD; in parentheses) are presented. 3. Discussion The purpose of this study was to determine if a variety of different taping techniques for the knee during treadmill running would impact the exercise efficiency of the running activity. We hypothesized that the novel spring method of Kinesio tape application would yield muscle activation, oxygen consumption, and stride frequency benefits to running activity. The results observed do not support our hypotheses. Furthermore, there were no differences in these variables between any of the other taping conditions compared to the control condition. These findings and their implications will be discussed. There was no effect of any taping condition on muscle activation of the primary knee flexor or extensor muscles. The conditions using Kinesio tape (the KT and spring conditions) were expected to see a reduced muscle activation of the muscle that the tape was applied to, given the elastic properties and supplementary force production upon recoil. Specifically, the spring taping technique was designed to modify the H:Q ratio, or the notable difference in the force production capability between the hamstring and quadriceps muscle groups [15]. Applying Kinesio tape to the posterior aspect of the knee was theorized to assist the weaker hamstring group and necessitate a lower activation of the biceps femoris muscle. Although EMG bicepswas the lowest in the spring group, this difference was not significant, and, therefore, not attributable to the taping condition per se. The large effect size observed (η 2= 0.184 > 0.14), however, suggests that this non-significant reduction in biceps femoris activation may have been more pronounced if the running bouts were of a longer duration, if the hamstring group was substantially fatigued prior to the running bout, or if more participants had been
not attributable to the taping condition per se. The large effect size observed (η 2= 0.184 > 0.14), however, suggests that this non-significant reduction in biceps femoris activation may have been more pronounced if the running bouts were of a longer duration, if the hamstring group was substantially fatigued prior to the running bout, or if more participants had been included to increase statistical power. Other studies have reported similar findings that Kinesio tape application does not alter the level of muscle activity. Yeung et al. [13] found that Kinesio tape application to the knee shortened the time required to generate peak torque during knee extension, but saw no difference in knee extensor activation. Similarly, at the shoulder joint, the application of Kinesio tape produced a reduction in muscle contraction onset time without differences in peak muscle activation during abduction and flexion [19]. Similar conclusions were made when assessing the muscle activation onset time of the lateral gastrocnemius muscle during walking, with and without Kinesio tape application. The onset time was shorter, yet the level of EMG activity was unchanged with Kinesio tape [20]. These findings are supported by a study demonstrating that Kinesio tape application facilitated an increase in the motor unit pool activation of the muscle application site [12]. The stimulation of cutaneous receptors is thought to be the mechanism of action explaining an increase in muscle response time, a structure which would not be thought to impact muscle activation levels. The effect of the application of taping techniques on athletic performance may be due, in part, to this improvement in muscle contraction onset time. Functional athletic skills, such as maximal power output, jumping, sprinting, etc., require high rates of force devel- opment [21], a benefit that appears to be imbued by Kinesio tape application. Cochrane, Nkuna, and Dawood [22] noted that the application of Kinesio tape to various muscles
Physiologia2025,5, 1 4 of 11 of the lower body resulted in improvements in speed, agility, and lower-body power in college-age soccer players. Similarly, Kinesio tape application for 72 h resulted in improve- ments in vertical jump height and ground reaction force [23]. The performance of some skills and balance were also reported to be improved in athletes with the application of taping by Lau and Cheng [16] in their large-scale review article. On the other hand, a study on the effects of Kinesio tape application in volleyball players found no effect on vertical jump height or peak jump power [24]. Other studies support the idea that the benefits from Kinesio tape application may be due to a placebo effect [25–27]. More investigations into the circumstances under which taping practices improve performance are needed to fully elucidate the effectiveness of this strategy. Few studies to date have examined the effect of how potential muscular and biome- chanical changes brought on by taping application might translate into metabolic changes during continuous running exercise. The current study was designed to address this gap in the literature. We attempted to control for the effects of perceived exertion, fatigue, and cardiovascular strain between the different conditions by using a fixed individualized running intensity and ensuring a sufficient recovery time between each running bout. The consistent levels of HR and RPE for each condition confirmed that these potential confounders to VO2levels were not present to a substantial degree. The lack of difference in VO2between conditions makes sense, given that no changes in muscle activation were observed, and, hence, no difference in O2utilization would be necessitated. The intensity of the muscle contraction for running activity or the low levels of fatigue in the muscles may have limited the effects of the taping conditions on muscle activation, and hence, metabolic activity. For example, Yeung et al. [13] noted that effects of KT were present in a fatigued state for knee flexor activity. Additionally, Kinesio tape application has been found to be beneficial to anaerobic, but not aerobic, performance of a lesser intensity [28], supporting the possible explanation that
the effects of the taping conditions on muscle activation, and hence, metabolic activity. For example, Yeung et al. [13] noted that effects of KT were present in a fatigued state for knee flexor activity. Additionally, Kinesio tape application has been found to be beneficial to anaerobic, but not aerobic, performance of a lesser intensity [28], supporting the possible explanation that the intensity of muscle contraction determines the effectiveness of taping techniques. Practical applications of this study merit discussion. Despite no beneficial effects of any taping application on running efficiency, there were no negative effects observed either. Runners who are advised to use taping at the knee joint during physical activity can do so without a measurably diminished running efficiency, muscle activity, or stride frequency. Athletic tape and Kinesio tape application is common in rehabilitative settings, so their continued use in more applicable exercise scenarios (running at a preferred speed) does not appear to have drawbacks in terms of muscular or metabolic function. Furthermore, the cost of trying Kinesio tape and assessing its actual (or perceived) effectiveness on an individual basis is not prohibitively expensive. Strengths and Limitations The current study was characterized by several strengths, one of which was that a repeated-measures design was used to make comparisons between conditions, limiting the effect of interindividual variability. The use of wireless EMG sensors to assess muscle activation preserved some of the generalizability of the running activity, since no effort was needed by participants to avoid stepping on or tripping over wires. The use of a reputable metabolic cart to measure oxygen consumption ensured that valid data were used to address the novel research aims of this study. Still, several limitations exist as well. First, the conclusions of this study are limited to young, healthy participants, as this was the target population that was tested. The results we present cannot necessarily be generalized to other groups beyond this population, such as older people or those with injuries and chronic pain. Specifically, people with patellofemoral pain syndrome or other knee conditions present during running may experience the effects
to young, healthy participants, as this was the target population that was tested. The results we present cannot necessarily be generalized to other groups beyond this population, such as older people or those with injuries and chronic pain. Specifically, people with patellofemoral pain syndrome or other knee conditions present during running may experience the effects
Physiologia2025,5, 1 5 of 11 of taping application differently than the sample selected for this study. This is particularly true for the KT condition, because this technique is designed specifically to alleviate joint pain when appropriately implemented. Future studies in this area should consider investigating the effects of taping techniques in people with mild–moderate joint pain. The relatively small sample size of this study also contributes to the lack of generalizability of the presented findings. Second, we did not assess some potential structural issues within the participants’ limbs and joints. Specifically, the position of the knee structures (i.e., the patella) before and after taping were not formally assessed, as the technology available made this unfeasible, and no tape was placed directly on the patella in any conditions tested. Changes in the locations of knee structures may be useful in future studies to explain the potential ergogenic effects of taping techniques. Similarly, we did not measure the precise lengths of both legs of each participant to ensure that they were the same length. Leg length discrepancies may impact the neuromuscular or biomechanical function, so the results reported can only be said to be true for the dominant legs of the participants. A third research design limitation was the potential effects of fatigue, due to the need to conduct all four running bouts on the same day. This schedule was used to ensure consistent placement of the EMG leads for all running bouts and control for the effects of day-to-day variation in metabolic rate/muscle soreness that could result from participants’ daily schedules or workout regimens. We attempted to control for the effects of resulting fatigue by maintaining a sufficient recovery period between running bouts and using a running task which was of an appropriate duration and intensity to complete four times in succession. If a future study was undertaken with only the spring technique and a control condition, running bouts of a longer duration could be completed, allowing for a more robust understanding of the effects of this taping strategy over the course of a more typical running task. Using fewer conditions
Description
This study examines the impact of knee taping techniques on running efficiency in recreational runners.