Abstract
dge in the scienti c domain of individual medley (IM) swimming training over a competitive season is limited. The purpose of this study was to propose a detailed coaching framework incorporating the key elements of a periodized training regimen for a 400 m IM swimmer. This framework was based on the available coaching and scienti c literature and the practical experience and expertise of the collaborating authors. The season has been divided in two or three macrocycles, further divided in three mesocycles each (six or nine mesocycles in total), in alignment with the two or three main competitions in each macrocycle. The principal training contents to develop during the season expressed in blood lactate zones are: aerobic training (~2 mmol L 1 ), lactate threshold pace (~4 mmol L 1 ) and VO 2max (maximum oxygen uptake) (~6 mmol L 1 ). Strength training should focus
mesocycles in total), in alignment with the two or three main competitions in each macrocycle. The principal training contents to develop during the season expressed in blood lactate zones are: aerobic training (~2 mmol L 1 ), lactate threshold pace (~4 mmol L 1 ) and VO 2max (maximum oxygen uptake) (~6 mmol L 1 ). Strength training should focus on maximum strength, power and speed endurance during the season. Altitude training camps can be placed strategically within the training season to promote physiological adaptation and improvements in performance. A well-constructed technical framework will permit development of training strategies for the 400 m IM swimmer to improve both training and competitive performance. Keywords:swimming; individual medley; training; season 1. Introduction Swimming competitions are performed in four major strokes (front crawl, backstroke, breaststroke and butter y). The individual medley events (IM) comprise all four swimming strokes in the following order: butter y, backstroke, breaststroke and freestyle. The two variants of the IM are the 200 m IM (50 m of each stroke) and the 400 m IM (100 m of each stroke). It is necessary to train all four strokes underpinning the widespread assertion in the high performance swimming community that the IM events are the most complex and challenging on swimming program [1]. Gonjo and Olstad [2] highlight the lack of knowledge on comprehensive guidelines for the preparation of high-level 400 m IM swimmers. In the IM swimming, the energetic and biomechanics differences between the four strokes yield a variable relative contribution of each stroke to the nal performance. How- ever, it is not clear which stroke(s) are more important in the nal performance in IM events. In the 400 m IM, breaststroke and freestyle seems to be the most relevant stroke in female swimmers [3,4]. In contrast, for male swimmers, the backstroke and breaststroke appear more important [4,5]. When planning training, coaches need to determine then prescribe the relative proportion of training of each stroke for the 400 m IM event throughout the season. To achieve the best performance in 400 m IM, coaches must ensure that middle- Int. J.
stroke in female swimmers [3,4]. In contrast, for male swimmers, the backstroke and breaststroke appear more important [4,5]. When planning training, coaches need to determine then prescribe the relative proportion of training of each stroke for the 400 m IM event throughout the season. To achieve the best performance in 400 m IM, coaches must ensure that middle- Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2021,18, 6474.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2021,18, 6474 2 of 14 distance front crawl training is a priority given a positive association between that freestyle and IM swimming [6]. To maximize the IM swimmers' performance, it is important to establish a detailed understanding of the training characteristics of both the 200 m and 400 m IM events for effective planning and monitoring. A coach needs to consider the training volume, frequency and intensity distribution for maximizing physical capacity and performance. Periodization can be de ned as the macromanagement of the delineated stages of training process with respect to the time allocated toward various elements [7]. The key aspects that underpin periodization are: (i) determining relevant dates (e.g., main and minor competi- tions), (ii) determining the sequence of phases for each training cycle and (iii) managing load dynamics with the intent of achieving peak or optimal performance at the critical competitions [8]. There are few studies which have examined the key aspects related to the best performance in 400 m IM events, including the training organization and periodization. Therefore, the aim of this narrative review is to examine the evidence on periodization related to the 400 m IM and identify key elements and best practices for this event. We ad- dress key aspects, such as bioenergetics necessary to plan the periodization for 400 m IM and examine traditional periodization following two or three peaks performance, training methods and tness phases for each training period in accordance with other narrative reviews in individual sports [9]. A narrative review provides a historical account of the development of theory and research on a topic (although the contribution to knowledge will be relatively minor [10]. Here we address theoretical conceptualizations, training constructs and relevant scienti c literature, to propose a practical framework for preparing 400 m IM swimmers. 2. Literature Search Methodology Electronic searches of PubMed/MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Scopus and Web of Science were conducted. The search terms used were individual medley swimming, middle distance swimming training, swimming training periodization and swimming peri- odization. Relevant review articles were also examined to uncover studies which might have been
literature, to propose a practical framework for preparing 400 m IM swimmers. 2. Literature Search Methodology Electronic searches of PubMed/MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Scopus and Web of Science were conducted. The search terms used were individual medley swimming, middle distance swimming training, swimming training periodization and swimming peri- odization. Relevant review articles were also examined to uncover studies which might have been missed in the primary search. The reference list of selected manuscripts was also examined for other potentially eligible manuscripts. No limits regarding the year of publication were employed. Studies were included when (a) they were published in English language (b); provided training zones, volumes and/or periodization details about middle distance or IM events and (c) focused on swimming performance in IM events. Exclusion criteria were: (a) swimmers with a current injury or disability and other aquatic participants (e.g., water polo, diving, triathletes) and (b) studies focusing on pacing or performance trends. The initial database search identi ed 714 records that were relevant to the search keywords. After removal of duplicates and elimination of papers based on title and abstract screening, 15 manuscripts remained. Finally, four articles were included in this review [1114]. The 11 studies that did not match the eligibility criteria based on full-text screening were discarded for one or more of the following reasons: not detailing training intensity distributions (n = 6), conducted with master swimmers (n = 2), performance trends in IM events across the years (n = 1) and pacing in 200 and 400 m IM (n = 1) (Figure).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2021,18, 6474 3 of 14Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 14 Figure 1. Flow chart summary of the study selection process. 3. Bioenergetics of Individual Medley Events The 400 IM has a duration ranging from 4 to 4.30 min and is considered as a middle distance swimming event [1]. Middle distance events are supported energetically by a combination of phosphate energy; anaerobic glycolysis and aerobic combustion of carbo- hydrate, fat and protein [15]. Competitive swimmers spend most of their training time improving aerobic endurance, defined as the ability to sustain a high percentage of VO2max for a long period, through careful and repeated interval-based training. This type of training is important for performance in events around 4 min such as the 400 m IM [16]. The physiological preparation for a 400 m IM should address the key physiological factors of the maximal aerobic power (rate of adenosine triphosphate resynthesis), capacity (total amount of adenosine triphosphate resynthesis from available fuels) and VO2max (maxi- mum oxygen uptake) [1]. The velocity associated with VO2max (vVO2max) is the single best predictor of middle-distance swimming performance especially in 400 m events [17,18]. From the data provided by 400 m front crawl swimmers [19,20], the estimated velocity achieved during 400 m IM is ~100% of vVO2max. At these intensities, the attain- ment of a VO2 steady state is delayed due to the emergence of a supplementary slowly developing component of the VO2 response [21]. The VO2 fast component is stable at in- tensities between 95, 100 and 105%; however, the kinetics of the VO2 slow component and the corresponding metabolic profiles showed variations between this intensities [19]. Other important physiological factors include the lactate threshold (LT), the ability to sustain a high percentage of VO2max during the competition and the energy cost of locomotion [15,18,19,22]. The physiological adaptations should align with the periodiza- tion of each swimmers’ training and competition calendar. These physiological adapta- tions are usually prescribed with specific training sets and sessions in the pool and dry- land training. One common
lactate threshold (LT), the ability to sustain a high percentage of VO2max during the competition and the energy cost of locomotion [15,18,19,22]. The physiological adaptations should align with the periodiza- tion of each swimmers’ training and competition calendar. These physiological adapta- tions are usually prescribed with specific training sets and sessions in the pool and dry- land training. One common approach in elite-level swimming to enhancing physiological and performance adaptations is incorporation of altitude training (either real or simulated to induce hypoxia). 4. Training Monitoring External load monitoring is usually assessed by quantifying the weekly training vol- ume [23]. The training volumes are usually classified into three or five intensities zones [14]. The three training zone model is typically established using swimming velocity and blood lactate concentrations as follows: z1 ≤ 2 mmol·L –1 ; z2 2–4 mmol·L –1 , and z3 ≥ 4 mmol·L –1 [13]. However, [24,25] proposed a modification with z1 ≤ 3 mmol·L –1 and z2 be- tween 3–4 mmol·L –1 . In swimming, the most common model adopted in the sports science literature comprises five zones: z1 ≤ 2 mmol·L –1 , z2 2–4 mmol·L –1 , z3 4–6 mmol·L –1 , z4 6– 10 mmol·L –1 and z5 < 10 mmol·L –1 [12,13,26]. Training zones can be categorized according Figure 1.Flow chart summary of the study selection process. 3. Bioenergetics of Individual Medley Events The 400 IM has a duration ranging from 4 to 4.30 min and is considered as a mid- dle distance swimming event [1]. Middle distance events are supported energetically by a combination of phosphate energy; anaerobic glycolysis and aerobic combustion of carbohydrate, fat and protein [15]. Competitive swimmers spend most of their training time improving aerobic endurance, de ned as the ability to sustain a high percentage of VO2max for a long period, through careful and repeated interval-based training. This type of training is important for performance in events around 4 min such as the 400 m IM [16]. The physiological preparation for a 400 m IM should address the key physio- logical factors of the maximal aerobic power (rate
the ability to sustain a high percentage of VO2max for a long period, through careful and repeated interval-based training. This type of training is important for performance in events around 4 min such as the 400 m IM [16]. The physiological preparation for a 400 m IM should address the key physio- logical factors of the maximal aerobic power (rate of adenosine triphosphate resynthesis), capacity (total amount of adenosine triphosphate resynthesis from available fuels) and VO2max (maximum oxygen uptake) [1]. The velocity associated with VO2max (vVO2max) is the single best predictor of middle-distance swimming performance especially in 400 m events [17,18]. From the data provided by 400 m front crawl swimmers [19,20], the es- timated velocity achieved during 400 m IM is ~100% of vVO2max. At these intensities, the attainment of a VO2steady state is delayed due to the emergence of a supplementary slowly developing component of the VO2response [21]. The VO2fast component is stable at intensities between 95, 100 and 105%; however, the kinetics of the VO2slow component and the corresponding metabolic pro les showed variations between this intensities [19]. Other important physiological factors include the lactate threshold (LT), the ability to sustain a high percentage of VO2max during the competition and the energy cost of locomotion [15,18,19,22]. The physiological adaptations should align with the periodization of each swimmers' training and competition calendar. These physiological adaptations are usually prescribed with speci c training sets and sessions in the pool and dryland training. One common approach in elite-level swimming to enhancing physiological and performance adaptations is incorporation of altitude training (either real or simulated to induce hypoxia). 4. Training Monitoring External load monitoring is usually assessed by quantifying the weekly training volume [23]. The training volumes are usually classi ed into three or ve intensities zones [14]. The three training zone model is typically established using swimming velocity and blood lactate concentrations as follows: z1 2 mmol L 1 ; z2 24 mmol L 1 , and z3 4 mmol L 1 [13]. However, [24,25] proposed a modi cation with z1 3 mmol L 1 and z2 between 34 mmol
into three or ve intensities zones [14]. The three training zone model is typically established using swimming velocity and blood lactate concentrations as follows: z1 2 mmol L 1 ; z2 24 mmol L 1 , and z3 4 mmol L 1 [13]. However, [24,25] proposed a modi cation with z1 3 mmol L 1 and z2 between 34 mmol L 1 . In swimming, the most common model adopted in the sports science literature comprises ve zones: z1 2 mmol L 1 , z2 24 mmol L 1 , z3 46 mmol L 1 , z4 610 mmol L 1 and z5 < 10 mmol L 1 [12,13,26]. Training zones can be categorized according to the response in blood lactate concentration: Z1; Aerobic low intensity (A1), z2; Aerobic maintenance (A2), z3; lactate threshold (LT), z4; VO2max and
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2021,18, 6474 4 of 14 intensity above VO2max as 200 m race pace and z5 maximal swimming speed [26]. These training zones need to be established and then checked periodically during a training season Monitoring of heart rate also has been used during training sessions to indicate training intensities [27] but is subject to substantial biological and measurement error. Nevertheless, blood lactate measurements are considered more useful in determining the training intensity because they facilitate better monitoring of the effect of training workloads on the muscle [23]. Thus, blood lactate is a good indicator of the muscles' capacity for an athletic performance which allows coaches to identify the type and extent of physiological disturbance and the degree of adaptation that has taken place over time [23]. An increase in blood lactate for the same training stimulus may, for example, point to in- creased anaerobic metabolism, and therefore, higher levels of lactate at slower speeds may be indicative of impending overtraining [28]. Nevertheless, the values of blood lactate are associated with a high between-swimmer variability in swimming techniques, with a range from <2 to >5 mmol L 1 at lactate threshold intensity. Front crawl (3.3 mmol L 1 ) and breaststroke (2.9 mmol L 1 ) present lower levels of blood lactate at the lactate threshold intensity than butter y (4.9 mmol L 1 ) and backstroke (3.9 mmol L 1 ) [29]. It is recom- mended to schedule a blood lactate assessment test using a prescribed testing protocol every few weeks [23]. The Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) is another commonly used method for assess- ing the internal training load [3033]. Studies have showed moderate to large correlations between the heart rate and blood lactate concentrations [34,35]. Although, RPE is a valid method for assessing the training stress in high-intensity exercises [36,37], it is important to acknowledge that personal perceptions of physical efforts is a very complex interaction of many factors [38]. Therefore, some investigators recommend to complement the RPE with an objective assessment of internal training load such as blood lactate and/or heart rate
concentrations [34,35]. Although, RPE is a valid method for assessing the training stress in high-intensity exercises [36,37], it is important to acknowledge that personal perceptions of physical efforts is a very complex interaction of many factors [38]. Therefore, some investigators recommend to complement the RPE with an objective assessment of internal training load such as blood lactate and/or heart rate monitoring [39,40]. 5. Training Periodization Periodization is a process that serves as the macromanagement of the training program in the context of the annual plan [7,41]. Various periodized models such as the reverse linear [24,25,42], or block periodization [43], have been established, but the most common periodized model in swimming is the so-called traditional periodization [14]. Over the recent decades, many periodization approaches have evolved including traditional, blocks, and reverse linear periodization, each offering a differing rationale and template for sub-division of the program into sequential elements [14]. Some authors af rm that the traditional model of periodization can take different forms (i.e., reverse) [44]. Reverse linear periodization has been used in combination with a polarized intensity distribution for improving sprint events. However, the small number of relevant studies did not report any differences with the traditional model in 50 m performance, or a modest improvement of 1% in 100 m performance [24,25]. Polarized training is not recommended for middle distance swimmers; 400 m IM swimmers should bene t from speci c periods of training that employ a threshold-oriented training intensity distribution [13]. Training periodization involves the coordination of physical training, psychological capacities training and skill acquisition, providing a comprehensive framework for optimal preparation [45]. Periodization of training leads to a progressive enhancement in the critical physiological and biomechanical factors required for swimming competitions [46]. On this basis, a well-planned and effective periodized approach to training should be established, monitored and re ned for swimmers to achieve tness and peak performance at the major competition for the season [47,48]. In the same way, detailed monitoring of performance and training during the season should be a fundamental aspect to maximize training effectiveness and avoid excessive volume, intensity and/or training load which
and effective periodized approach to training should be established, monitored and re ned for swimmers to achieve tness and peak performance at the major competition for the season [47,48]. In the same way, detailed monitoring of performance and training during the season should be a fundamental aspect to maximize training effectiveness and avoid excessive volume, intensity and/or training load which can cause physiological disturbances (e.g., glycogen depletion, neuromuscular fatigue, decrements in red cell volume and hemoglobin), injuries or illness [49].
Description
This study proposes a coaching framework for periodized training in 400 m IM swimmers.