Abstract
ce (MC) is defined as a global term that describes a person’s ability to be proficient in a wide range of motor acts. Based on this principle, we have created a training program that aims to determine the effect of 12 weeks of enriched athletics sports training with complementary motor activities on MC in children aged between 6 and 10 years old. The subjects will be divided into two groups: (i) the athletics training group (IG_A) that will participate in athletics training three times a week for 12 weeks, with 60 min sessions; and (ii) the athletics training + other activities group (IG_B) that will participate in athletics training twice a week and will have another activity training (gymnastics, handball, swimming, and motor games) for 12 weeks, with 60 min sessions. The two groups will be assessed at baseline and 12 weeks later. The KTK3+ will be used to assess MC. A between–within ANOVA-RM (2 [groups]×2 [time points]) will be conducted.
group (IG_B) that will participate in athletics training twice a week and will have another activity training (gymnastics, handball, swimming, and motor games) for 12 weeks, with 60 min sessions. The two groups will be assessed at baseline and 12 weeks later. The KTK3+ will be used to assess MC. A between–within ANOVA-RM (2 [groups]×2 [time points]) will be conducted. The results and conclusions of the implementation program will be presented in another study. Keywords:program; training; children; motor competence 1. Introduction Physical activity (PA) is widely recognized as a protective factor against a range of chronic diseases, including cardiovascular conditions, type 2 diabetes, and childhood obesity [1], and contributes to the short- and long-term improvement of the bone, muscle, and psychological health of children and adolescents [2]. Beyond its physiological benefits, PA plays a central role in the development of motor competence (MC) [1], an essential component of children’s physical literacy and a critical predictor of sustained engagement in an active lifestyle throughout life [3,4], and is related to performance in various sports [5]. MC can be defined as the ability to efficiently perform a broad repertoire of fundamen- tal movement skills (FMSs), such as locomotor, stability, and object-control tasks [6,7]. The development of these skills is influenced by the dynamic interaction among individual (e.g., biological and hereditary), environmental (e.g., socio-cultural factors and prior experience), and task-specific factors (e.g., cognitive demand and mechanical properties) [6,8]. The evidence suggests that children with low levels of MC are more likely to show reduced PA participation, poorer physical fitness, and difficulties acquiring more complex Healthcare2025,13, 2111 https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare13172111
Healthcare2025,13, 2111 2 of 16 movement skills [9–11]. These findings highlight the importance of early interventions, particularly during sensitive periods of motor development, when children are most responsive to motor learning through structured programs or educational strategies [12,13]. Structured interventions, such as guided motor games, quality physical education programs, and organized sports such as athletics, may be especially effective in promoting MC, as they provide diverse motor experiences and challenging FMSs. According to Lopes et al. [14], these improvements can positively affect overall physical fitness, which directly impacts cardiovascular health, body composition, and functional capacity. However, the literature lacks conclusive evidence regarding the specific effects of athletics-based programs on MC compared to multilateral or general physical education approaches [15]. Middle childhood, between the ages of 6 and 10, is a critical period for motor skill ac- quisition, characterized by rapid neuromuscular maturation, growth in physical capacities, and heightened adaptability to training stimuli. The evidence from school- and community- based interventions shows that structured PA (e.g., games, plyometric training, dance, and sports) or aquatics (e.g., swimming) consistently improves FMSs, coordination, and overall MC in this age group [16–18]. Aquatic programs have demonstrated significant gains in both global and specific motor skills, even over short durations, while land-based interven- tions have been shown to enhance complementary domains, such as strength, agility, and locomotor proficiency [19,20]. Collectively, the literature highlights that providing diverse, developmentally appropriate movement experiences during this sensitive growth window not only optimizes motor development but also supports long-term physical literacy and active lifestyle habits. In this context, it becomes essential to assess the effects of systematic and structured training programs targeting MC development in early school-age children. Standardized tools, such as the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK) [21], Test of Gross Motor Development of Ulrich [22], and Motor Assessment Batteries for Children (MABC) of Henderson and Sugden [23], have been widely used to evaluate MC due to their reliability and suitability for children aged 6 to 10 years. Thus, the aim of this study is to design and evaluate a 12-week athletics-based training program for children aged 6 to 10, assessing
Motor Development of Ulrich [22], and Motor Assessment Batteries for Children (MABC) of Henderson and Sugden [23], have been widely used to evaluate MC due to their reliability and suitability for children aged 6 to 10 years. Thus, the aim of this study is to design and evaluate a 12-week athletics-based training program for children aged 6 to 10, assessing its effects on MC. The hypotheses are as follows: (i) There will be significant improvement in MC after the 12-week intervention. (ii) There will be significant between-group differences in MC levels post-intervention. (iii) There will be significant improvement in MC of IG_B group after the 12-week intervention compared to the IG_A. (iv) The multi-activity program will lead to greater MC improvement in the IG_B group. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Design This study follows a randomized, controlled experimental design with parallel groups (1:1 allocation ratio), aimed at evaluating and comparing the effects of two types of training protocols on MC in children aged 6 to 10 years. This methodology is used considering the conclusions of the systematic review and the fact that the main researcher is an athlet- ics coach. The participants will be ecologically assigned into one of two intervention groups, depending upon the training schedule chosen by their parents, according to their avail- abilities, and being given no prior indication of which of the two programs will function on which schedule: (i) Intervention Group A (IG_A) will receive athletics-based train- ing exclusively, three times per week for 12 consecutive weeks, with each session lasting 60 min; and (ii) Intervention Group B (IG_B) will receive a combined program consisting of athletics-based training twice per week and one additional session per week involving a
Healthcare2025,13, 2111 3 of 16 complementary activity (gymnastics, handball, or motor games), also over 12 weeks and with 60 min sessions. All the participants will undergo MC assessments at two times: (i) at baseline (T0), prior to the beginning of the intervention; and (ii) at post-intervention (T1), immediately following the 12-week training period. The post-intervention evaluations will take place three days after the final training session, always in the afternoon, to ensure consistency in the testing conditions. Figure illustrates the participant flow and intervention timeline for the trial. Figure 1.Timeline of the study design. 2.2. Participants The study sample will be composed of children aged between 6 and 10 years, all of whom are to be active members of an athletics club located in the district of Leiria, Portugal. All the participants will be affiliated with the Portuguese Athletics Federation and covered by sports insurance, which includes protections regarding training sessions and data collection procedures. The selected age range fits into middle childhood, which is a critical period for motor development and the acquisition of fundamental motor skills. This age range aligns with previous research utilizing the KTK3+ battery, which has been validated and normed specifically for children within this developmental window [24,25], and was chosen because children between 6 and 10 years old are typically enrolled in primary school, where structured physical education and motor skill interventions are most effective at promoting motor competence and physical literacy [26,27]. To be eligible for inclusion in the study, the participants must meet the following criteria: (i) be aged between 6 and 10 years; (ii) be officially registered in the Portuguese Athletics Federation; and (iii) provide written informed consent signed by their legal guardians, along with the
Healthcare2025,13, 2111 4 of 16 child’s verbal assent. The exclusion criteria are as follows: (i) any diagnosed physical or intellectual disability; (ii) any medical contraindications to physical exercise; (iii) failure to obtain parental consent; (iv) failure to complete the entire assessment protocol; (v) failure to complete a minimum of 80% attendance at training sessions in general and, in IG_B, failure to also complete a minimum of 80% attendance at complementary motor activities training sessions; and (vi) being outside the stipulated age range. The children meeting all the eligibility criteria will be randomly assigned to one of the two intervention groups, as described in the study design: (i) Intervention Group A (IG_A) or (ii) Intervention Group B (IG_B). 2.3. Ethical Approval The current protocol has been reviewed and approved by the Scientific Ethics Com- mittee of the Faculdad de Ciencias e del Deport de la Universidad da Extremadura, Spain (approval number: N ◦ 244/2024, 3 October 2024), and was developed following the Decla- ration of Helsinki for work with humans. 2.4. Instruments and Procedures 2.4.1. Procedures The intervention study was structured into several sequential phases to ensure method- ological rigor and alignment with the study objectives: (i) SR—A comprehensive literature review was conducted to synthesize the current evidence on the effects of PA, organized sports, and structured training programs on MC in children; (ii) Program Design—the train- ing protocol was developed based on the findings of the SR, incorporating best practices and evidence-based guidelines targeting fundamental motor skill development; (iii) Program Promotion—communication strategies will be employed to inform and engage the stake- holders, including the parents, coaches, and athletics club, about the program’s purpose and benefits; (iv) Definition of Procedures and Objectives—clear operational procedures and objectives for the intervention will be established to ensure fidelity in implementation and alignment with the research aims; (v) Participant Selection and Group Allocation— the sample will be defined, and the participants will be randomly assigned to either the athletics training group (IG_A) or the athletics training plus multi-activity group (IG_B); (vi) Baseline Assessment (T0)—an initial assessment will be conducted to establish the par- ticipants’ pre-intervention
established to ensure fidelity in implementation and alignment with the research aims; (v) Participant Selection and Group Allocation— the sample will be defined, and the participants will be randomly assigned to either the athletics training group (IG_A) or the athletics training plus multi-activity group (IG_B); (vi) Baseline Assessment (T0)—an initial assessment will be conducted to establish the par- ticipants’ pre-intervention motor competence and anthropometric measures; (vii) Program Implementation—the 12-week training program will be administered to both interven- tion groups under controlled conditions; (viii) Post-Intervention Assessment (T1)—a final evaluation will be conducted 12 weeks later to assess the changes and outcomes related to the intervention; and (ix) Data Analysis and Interpretation—the collected data will be statistically analyzed to determine the effectiveness of the intervention, followed by a discussion and formulation of conclusions. 2.4.2. Informed Consent A comprehensive explanation of the study (materials and methods inclusive) by the research leader and the host institution will be provided to allow the participants/family members/tutors to be fully informed. The subject group will be given adequate time to decide about their participation. To do this, the participants, family members, and tutors must sign and deliver an informed consent form. 2.4.3. Anthropometrics Assessment These measurements will be taken by a researcher with extensive experience in an- thropometric procedures. This will not only ensure greater intra-observer reliability, as these measurements will be taken by a single measurer, but will also eliminate the risk of
Healthcare2025,13, 2111 5 of 16 inter-observer errors. The height will be measured using a stadiometer with a scale of 0.0 to 210 cm, while the children are barefoot and wearing only essential clothing (shorts and t-shirts). The Body weight will be measured using bioimpedance on a Tanita MC-780MAS Segmental digital scale (Tokyo, Japan). The body weight and height data will be used to calculate the Body Mass Index (BMI) using the formula BMI = Weight/(height) 2 . 2.4.4. Motor Competence Assessment Motor competence will be assessed using the KTK3+ test battery [28], which is an adaptation of the original Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK) by Kiphard and Schilling [21]. The original KTK primarily assesses gross motor coordination through balance and locomotor tasks; however, the KTK3+ introduces an additional eye–hand coordination (EHC) task, thereby expanding its capacity to evaluate manipulative skills, a core compo- nent of motor competence. This makes the KTK3+ a more holistic and ecologically valid tool, aligning with the theoretical frameworks that define MC as comprising locomotor, stability, and manipulative components [29,30]. The use of KTK3+ is therefore methodologically strategic, as it will allow us to compre- hensively assess the multidimensional impact of both a mono-athletic sport and enriched athletic training program on children’s MC. KTK3+ Test Application and Procedures The test is made up of four tasks: Task 1, balancing backwards (BB); Task 2, jumping sideways (JS); Task 3, moving sideways (MS) [31]; and Task 4, eye-hand coordination (EHC). According to Gorla et al. [32], in the first task, dynamic balance is mainly checked; in the second, lower limb strength; in the third, laterality and spatial–temporal structuring; and in the fourth, locomotion, balance, and object control. In the BB task, there are three trials per balance beam, which decrease in width as the test progresses (6.0 cm to 4.5 cm to 3.0 cm). The total number of steps is counted, with a maximum of 72 steps (or 8 steps in each trial per balance beam). In the JS task, participants have to jump with two feet over a wooden slat for 15 s. The final score results from
decrease in width as the test progresses (6.0 cm to 4.5 cm to 3.0 cm). The total number of steps is counted, with a maximum of 72 steps (or 8 steps in each trial per balance beam). In the JS task, participants have to jump with two feet over a wooden slat for 15 s. The final score results from the sum of the number of jumps in both trials. In the MS task, participants have to move sideways on a straight-line handling two wooden platforms for 20 s. The total score results from summing the number of times the participants put down a wooden platform and the number of times the partici- pants step on the displaced wooden platform during both trials. The EHC test is a valid and reliable product-oriented test [28] that determines the level of control of a tennis ball while conducting repetitive movements (i.e., left hand throw, right hand catch, followed by right hand throw, and left hand catch, etc.) as frequently as possible in a time-constrained task of 30 s [33]. The participants are free to use overhand and/or underhand techniques or a combination of both for throwing and catching. For this purpose, participants have to stand 1 m from a wall and throw the tennis ball at eye-level within a square (1 m 2 ) taped on the wall, with the bottom side of the square 1 m above the ground. Participants perform this test twice, with the number of successful ball catches across both trials resulting in the test score. The results of each item are compared with the normative values provided by the authors, and each item is assigned a quotient. The sum of the four quotients represents the global motor quotient (GMQ), which can be presented as a percentage or absolute value, making it possible to classify children for each age and sex according to their level of coordination development. For the total KTK3+ MQ-score, a classification of 5 levels of MC based on the normal distribution can be made [34]: (i) values below 70 are seen as
quotient (GMQ), which can be presented as a percentage or absolute value, making it possible to classify children for each age and sex according to their level of coordination development. For the total KTK3+ MQ-score, a classification of 5 levels of MC based on the normal distribution can be made [34]: (i) values below 70 are seen as
Healthcare2025,13, 2111 6 of 16 an indicative of “severe gross MC disorder”; (ii) values between 71 and 85 are considered to represent “moderate gross MC disorder”; (iii) values between 86 and 115 are seen as “normal gross MC proficiency”; (iv) values between 116 and 130 are seen as “good gross MC proficiency”; and (v) values above 131 point to “high gross MC proficiency”. Before the initial assessment there will be practitioner training of the research team that will be assessing the KTK3+ to assure high inter-rater reliability. 2.5. Study Protocol The protocol for both groups will be conducted according to the SR [35]. The subjects will be familiarized with the different exercises and tests during the preceding training period. The body composition and MC parameters will also be assessed at baseline (pretest) and post-intervention. 2.5.1. Training Programs The training programs will be implemented in both groups over 12 consecutive weeks, with 60 min training sessions three times a week, at Leiria’s Main Stadium, Dr. Magalhães Pessoa. The coaches will monitor the children’s attendance and absences at the training sessions, recording them on a specific attendance sheet. Intervention Group A (IG_A) Training Program Intervention Group A (IG_A) will participate in structured athletics training sessions three times per week, each lasting 60 min. The sessions will be held at the Municipal Stadium of Leiria—Dr. Magalhães Pessoa—on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 17:30 to 18:30, and on Saturdays from 09:00 to 10:00. The structure of each session will follow a consistent format. (i) Warm-up (5 min): Dynamic stretching or light jogging. (ii) Main phase (45 min): Focused athletics training targeting specific objectives—technique, speed, strength, and endurance. (iii) Cool-down (5 min): Static stretching or light jogging. The participants in this group will engage exclusively in athletics training, with no additional activities. The detailed 12-week training program is presented in Table. Table 1.Intervention Group A (IG_A) program. Week Sports Training Objective Exercises Prescription Volume 1 Athletics Technics and Speed Main part: Running technics (Skipping’s). Speed: Various starts—sitting, lying down, etc. 60 min Athletics Speed and Strength Main part: Agility and coordination circuit and general physical condition
athletics training, with no additional activities. The detailed 12-week training program is presented in Table. Table 1.Intervention Group A (IG_A) program. Week Sports Training Objective Exercises Prescription Volume 1 Athletics Technics and Speed Main part: Running technics (Skipping’s). Speed: Various starts—sitting, lying down, etc. 60 min Athletics Speed and Strength Main part: Agility and coordination circuit and general physical condition circuit. 60 min Athletics Strength and Resistance Main part: General physical condition circuit and varied games to stimulate resistance. 60 min 2 Athletics Technics and Speed Main part: Hurdles training technic and running at high speed with 4, 5, and 6 low hurdles. 60 min Athletics Speed and Strength Main part: Agility and coordination circuit and multi-throw with medicine ball (1–2 kg). 60 min Athletics Strength and Resistance Main part: General physical condition circuit and aerobic running (10–15 min). 60 min
Description
This study evaluates a 12-week athletics training program's effect on children's motor competence.