Abstract
study presents the implementation and results of the Annual Physical Training Program for Masters +45 Half Marathoners (PASm-12), focused on optimizing athletic performance through rigorous planning of training volume and intensity. PASm-12, structured over 12 mesocycles and 52 microcycles, was applied to 6 female runners with over 10 years of experience. The results indicate that the total running volume achieved (2347 km) was 90.2% of the volume proposed by PASm-12 (2603.2 km), with statistically significant differences in most mesocycles (Cohen’s f 2 = 6.24, t =−5.997 ,p= 0.002, indicating a large effect size). The training intensity was achieved at an average of 94.8% of what was proposed by PASm-12, with significant differences in several mesocycles (Cohen’s f 2 = 0.45, t =−1.972 to−3.984,p< 0.05, indicating a moderate to large effect size). The female runners’ performances in field tests generally showed faster times than the maximum and average values proposed in PASm-12, with the exception of the final competition, where performance was slightly lower due to
was proposed by PASm-12, with significant differences in several mesocycles (Cohen’s f 2 = 0.45, t =−1.972 to−3.984,p< 0.05, indicating a moderate to large effect size). The female runners’ performances in field tests generally showed faster times than the maximum and average values proposed in PASm-12, with the exception of the final competition, where performance was slightly lower due to external competitive factors (Cohen’s d =−0.53, t =−1.192,p= 0.3). This plan, demonstrating good practice, could serve as a guideline model for amateur runners who do not have specialist counseling. PASm-12 can reduce the risk of injury, prevent excessive fatigue, and support ongoing participation in sports activities. Additionally, the implementation of this plan could provide amateur runners with a safe and effective training structure, contributing to improved health and athletic performance. Keywords:annual physical training program; half marathon; master +45; women; training volume planning; training intensity; athletic performance 1. Introduction A half marathon is an athletic event involving a 21.0975 km race, half the distance of a marathon [1]. In sports terms, a half marathon is a road race, also called non-stadia. Non-stadia events are sports events organized outside the stadium, including mountain, road, or sand races [2]. Two categories of participants compete in half marathons: amateur runners and performance runners. Amateurs are passionate runners who become competitive over time. Competitors are classified into age groups—18–34, 35–44, 45–54, 55–64, 65+ [3]—while master runners compete in the following categories, regardless of gender identity (men, women, non-binary): 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 years [4]. Participation rates and performance vary by age group. Although not currently included in the Olympic Games, the half marathon has become popular among amateur runners in recent decades [5]. Its current popularity is driven by Sports2024,12, 256.
Sports2024,12, 256 2 of 24 the large number of amateur runners, with an increasing number of women participating in such sports events [6]. A few studies shows that the number of women and men participating in half marathons and marathons increased significantly between 1999 and 2014, more so in half marathons and especially among women (123 times more women participate in half marathons than in marathons, and 75 times more men register for half marathons than for marathons) [5,6]. Similarly, in the USA, in 2019, the proportion of women (60%) surpassed that of men (40%) in half marathons, with more significant increases among master runners compared to younger runners [6]. Other studies also show that participation in competitions is relatively higher among women than men, especially in the 50+ age groups, with higher performance frequencies achieved at older ages [7–10]. In Romania, trends align with global ones, but the number of female participants in such races is still lower compared to other countries. The Romanian Athletics Federation (FRA) website indicates that the number of participants in the Bucharest Half Marathon has progressively increased since 2016, with a simultaneous increase in the number of female participants. Most women finished the race at the Cluj-Napoca Half Marathon from 2016–2022, with their numbers constantly growing, representing 29.06% of the total participants in 2022 [11]. Romanian master runners are registered with sports clubs affiliated with the FRA, also known as “veterans” [12] or senior runners [13]. As worldwide, in Romania, the scale and popularity of the half marathon are driven by amateurs, with fewer performance runners. The increase in the number of endurance race participants and the diversification of participant groups (age, gender, profession, etc.) pose challenges in training design, monitoring, and execution, requiring adaptation to the specific needs of amateur runners. For women, training is conducted amidst numerous professional and family responsi- bilities [14]. Running many kilometers almost daily and weekly can interfere with their professional or family obligations or specific age-related needs. Additionally, women are more susceptible to injuries compared to men [15]. Training programs for master amateur runners should focus not
adaptation to the specific needs of amateur runners. For women, training is conducted amidst numerous professional and family responsi- bilities [14]. Running many kilometers almost daily and weekly can interfere with their professional or family obligations or specific age-related needs. Additionally, women are more susceptible to injuries compared to men [15]. Training programs for master amateur runners should focus not only on physical performance but also on reducing physiolog- ical and relational stress. On the other hand, the heterogeneous profile of amateur half marathoners has led to diverse training models to adapt to the anatomical, physiologi- cal, or psychosocial factors influencing endurance runners’ performance and well-being, whether amateur or professional [10]. Unlike professional athletes, amateur half marathon runners—although they often have some prior running experience, most of them are not coached by a trainer—tend to exceed their upper physical capacity limits, frequently expe- riencing overtraining syndrome [16], lack of physiological adaptation [17], or deterioration of physical fitness [18,19]. The disadvantage of amateur runners is highlighted in other studies, showing that many performance-related factors and finish time predictions are under-researched [20,21]. Additionally, another drawback is the fact that systematic analy- ses of training plans primarily focus on professional runners [22], while those intended for amateur athletes are much rarer, though not entirely absent [10,20]. Under these conditions, although the half marathon as an event for amateurs has impressively developed, there is no consensus on the best training practices that would allow for the optimization of physical performance in a healthy manner [23]. However, there is a lot of empirical data that is not necessarily based on scientific studies [24]. As a result, controversies among specialists regarding the effectiveness of various training models and the need to adapt them to amateur runners’ particularities complicate the choice of optimal training type for a category or individual practitioners [25]. Sports training is a long-term activity carried out through a laborious process of planning and programming [26]. Training planning is a predictive process, based on experience and scientific knowledge, aimed at the rational, systematic, and sequential organization of training tasks and the recovery process to
particularities complicate the choice of optimal training type for a category or individual practitioners [25]. Sports training is a long-term activity carried out through a laborious process of planning and programming [26]. Training planning is a predictive process, based on experience and scientific knowledge, aimed at the rational, systematic, and sequential organization of training tasks and the recovery process to achieve performance objectives at specific times [27]. This involves paying special attention to the volume and intensity of effort, as these two variables are closely linked to the effectiveness and safety of training, directly influencing the capacity for adaptation and athletic progress [28]. The objective of
Sports2024,12, 256 3 of 24 training is to improve the athlete’s athletic skills and, ultimately, their performance level. The correct use of knowledge, experience, and principles of sports training leads to the design of effective training programs. As revealed by a previous study that we conducted [29], many Romanian amateur athletes are interested in achieving faster race times and gaining social recognition for their efforts. In this context, they are concerned with optimizing their training efficiency. The importance of properly scheduling volume and intensity in this context is crucial, as it allows for the adjustment of training sessions to maximize performance without compromising the athletes’ health [27]. The same study showed that 55.9% of runners become injured during training or competitions or engage in demanding training exceeding 100 km per week, often followed by excessive fatigue, making it difficult to maintain motivation and diminishing running satisfaction. This further emphasizes the need to carefully regulate the volume and intensity of training to prevent overtraining and ensure proper recovery, which are essential for maintaining long-term physical and mental well- being [30]. Amateur female athletes have varied perceptions of effective training, lacking consensus on the optimal patterns of training methods, as well as on the volume and intensity of effort applied during each training phase at any given time [29]. In other words, it is important to consider that both the volume and intensity of effort are essential components of planning the sports training process, being fundamental to structuring an effective training program. Numerous training programs highlight various solutions for achieving performance. These training programs aim to develop economical training strategies for half marathoners, maintaining sports efficiency within optimal limits and positive effects on physical and mental health [31–33]. The impact of the strategies used is controversial, with evidence suggesting that moderate-intensity training enhances athletic performance similarly to high-intensity training. However, high-intensity training shows more significant differences in the physiological adaptation of the body to exertion [34,35]. Regarding the timing and scheduling of training programs, from the study of various sources, we have found that the time intervals for which these training plans
strategies used is controversial, with evidence suggesting that moderate-intensity training enhances athletic performance similarly to high-intensity training. However, high-intensity training shows more significant differences in the physiological adaptation of the body to exertion [34,35]. Regarding the timing and scheduling of training programs, from the study of various sources, we have found that the time intervals for which these training plans are developed vary: 12/15/32 weeks [32,36], 12 weeks [37,38], 20 weeks [23], or 4–6 months [39]. Some believe that a one-year training program is essential [17]. However, verifying these training programs’ efficiency through experiments or quasi-experiments is rare or limited to elite runners [40]. As mentioned earlier, most training plan models target professional athletes, with far fewer tailored for amateur athletes. Generally, the traditional endurance training programming model is linear, featuring progressively structured training intervals in a predetermined sequence, including sessions, microcycles, and mesocycles that culminate in a macrocycle. Training periodization requires different training objectives, with its sequencing occurring during preparatory phases (focused on general and specific physical preparation, pre-competition, and competition preparation), concluding with a transition and recovery phase [28]. In the same context, another source emphasizes that scientifically approached training design and management should focus on key aspects of the training process, such as periodization, which require strategic adjustments to the volume and in- tensity of effort to optimize performance and physiological adaptation, along with training methods and monitoring, performance prediction, running technique, and the prevention and remediation of health issues associated with endurance running [23]. However, in prac- tice, some half marathon runners employ a non-periodized strategy characterized by a fixed number of kilometers predetermined by repetitions throughout a training cycle [41]. This approach, while simplifying planning, may overlook critical aspects such as adjusting the volume and intensity of effort based on the athlete’s physical condition and specific goals, which can limit the optimization of performance and proper physiological adaptation. In this complex context of planning and training practice for amateur female runners, our study aims to develop, apply, and confirm the efficiency of a staggered physical training program over one year (macrocycle) for female Master (+45)
intensity of effort based on the athlete’s physical condition and specific goals, which can limit the optimization of performance and proper physiological adaptation. In this complex context of planning and training practice for amateur female runners, our study aims to develop, apply, and confirm the efficiency of a staggered physical training program over one year (macrocycle) for female Master (+45) half marathoners, aiming to generalize the experience and good practices of nationally and internationally recognized
Sports2024,12, 256 4 of 24 runners adaptively. We believe their common training strategy can serve as a medium-term training model for amateur runners without a coach’s counseling benefits. The emphasis placed on volume and intensity in this plan highlights our belief that precise management of these dimensions is essential for achieving the desired sports performance, without compromising the health and well-being of the female athletes. Based on these considerations, for the application of our annual physical training plan, we have formulated three research questions, each associated with a specific research direction. Question 1 (Q1): To what extent does the volume of effort performed by athletes align with the planned volume of effort in the annual physical training plan? The research direction for this question is to assess the congruence between planning and execution of training volume, evaluating the effectiveness of the programming. Question 2 (Q2): How does the intensity of effort performed by athletes compare with the proposed intensity of effort in the training plan for each mesocycle? This research direction aims to determine if the intensity of the training is appropriately adjusted to promote physiological adaptations without inducing risks of overtraining. Question 3 (Q3): Do the performances achieved in field tests meet the expectations established by the proposed average times in the training plan? The research direction for this question explores the relationship between scheduled preparation and actual performances, highlighting the importance of calibrating time goals according to the athletes’ real capabilities. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Study Design The approach we implemented is ameliorative/formative in nature, as it aims to shape behavior [42], with the goal of improving or at least maintaining athletic performance in the half marathon event for master women (45+). Additionally, given that this is a physical training plan spread over the course of a year and considering that we have not found any macrocycle-type planning in the specialized literature, we consider our study to be a pilot one. 2.2. Study Subjects and Research Team Within the study, female master athletes aged 45 and over were selected because, as mentioned earlier, several studies indicate that
a physical training plan spread over the course of a year and considering that we have not found any macrocycle-type planning in the specialized literature, we consider our study to be a pilot one. 2.2. Study Subjects and Research Team Within the study, female master athletes aged 45 and over were selected because, as mentioned earlier, several studies indicate that their participation in competitions has in- creased significantly globally over the past three decades [43–45]. From an age perspective, different age categories are considered to ensure some heterogeneity of the sample and, consequently, greater internal validity of research [42]. The subject group includes six female amateur runners (S1–S6) who practice long- distance running both indoor and outdoor, road and mountain running, and fall into the 45–49 and 50+ age categories. They are Master runners registered with Romanian sports clubs affiliated with the FRA, and at the study’s outset, they had over 10 years of endurance running experience (Table). Being amateur runners, they do not have personal coaches. All participants live in urban areas and have different professions. The profession of the participants includes three physical education teachers, one doctor, one marketing specialist, and one museum curator. These characteristics were inclusion criteria, while health status and injuries were exclusion criteria. Table 1.Socio-demographic characteristics of the runners who followed PASm-12 (October 2021). Athlete Age (Years) Residence Sports Club Running Experience S1 50 Bras ,ov Brasov University Sports Club 13 S2 44 Bucharest Bucharest Railway Sports Club 10 S3 48 Medias , Star Athletics Club Medias , 30 S4 55 Bucharest Locomotiva Sports Club Bucharest 12 S5 57 Bistrit ,a Năsăud Municipal Sports Club Bistrit ,a 38 S6 47 Sibiu Sibiu Community Club 10
Sports2024,12, 256 5 of 24 For this study, the Romanian female runners (S1–S6) were recruited at the World Masters Mountain Running Championships (Telfes, Austria 2021), where the Romanian team, including these female runners, placed third after Italy and Germany. In 2021, all six female runners were active, participating in national and international competitions, with one (S5) also participating in two virtual competitions. To assess the health status of the six female runners, they underwent an initial labo- ratory diagnosis (in the first part of mesocycle 1; 4–31 October 2021) at the SZJA Sportlab Center in Cârt,a, Harghita County [46]. The specialized anamnesis showed no cardio- respiratory pathologies or injury history in the last six months. To determine the female runners’ maximum heart rate (MHR) for establishing the training intensity and training zones, an effort test was conducted using a professional treadmill (HP Cosmos—pulsar ® 3p, h/p/cosmos sports & medical gmbh/Nußdorf, Germany) following the Brucea protocol at the same location [47]. The HP Cosmos treadmill is equipped with a chest strap connected to an external monitoring system, which displays the data on the screen in real time. As study coordinators (the research team), five faculty members from the Faculty of Physical Education and Mountain Sports, Transilvania University of Bras,ov, participated in designing PASm-12, approving and adjusting its content as needed and monitoring the training process of the six female runners. Our research approach was approved by the De- partment of Physical Education and Special Motricity of the faculty (no. 332/1/23.09.2021, approved on 23 September 2021) and was based on the Helsinki Declaration regarding research ethics, ensuring the rights, safety, and well-being of the participants. Informed consent of the participants was obtained. Additionally, during the implementation of PASm-12, periodic consultation was sought from a sports nutrition specialist (Superfit Center in Bucharest) [48]. 2.3. Procedure Throughout the training program, periodic non-specific and specific tests were applied to the six female runners for more rigorous control and regulation of the staggered physical training process over one year. The independent variable consists of the content of the annual physical training pro- gram for Masters +45
from a sports nutrition specialist (Superfit Center in Bucharest) [48]. 2.3. Procedure Throughout the training program, periodic non-specific and specific tests were applied to the six female runners for more rigorous control and regulation of the staggered physical training process over one year. The independent variable consists of the content of the annual physical training pro- gram for Masters +45 half marathoners (PASm-12) and was largely followed independently (self-training) by each study participant through a personalized training program derived from PASm-12, monitored, and staggered over 12 training mesocycles. Since PASm-12 is applied in the runners’ natural environment, the control of the independent variable is not very strict, but the research has the advantage of being an ecological intervention, making its results and conclusions more suitable for practical problem-solving compared to laboratory experiments [49]. Dependent variables include the participants’ performances in applying the dependent variable, i.e., running distances achieved, the intensities at which they were performed, with both effort indicators reported to the corresponding values proposed by PASm-12. Additionally, partial or complete test times in five field tests conducted in non-competitive and competitive environments, where the runners gathered at predetermined locations during PASm-12 design, also represented elements of the dependent variable. After selecting the subject group, participants were informed about the study’s general objectives and the annual physical training program’s structure and content—as well as the competition calendar (2021–2022)—were agreed upon, with potential adjustments depending on the evaluations/results obtained from the scheduled/designed tests. 2.3.1. The Presentation of the Annual Physical Training Plan for the Half Marathon (PASm-12) Considering various training models and debates regarding the advantages or dis- advantages of certain periodization methods, as well as the consequences of different training volumes (kilometers covered) and intensities (execution times/tempo, expressed as a percentage of maximum effort capacity per subject) on performance and maintaining
Description
The study evaluates a training program for Masters +45 women half marathon athletes.