Abstract
sychological resilience is the ability to use personal qualities to withstand pressure, con- sisting of the interaction between the individual and the environment over time. It is essential when operating in extreme environments which are typically characterised by a complex combination of stressors with increased elements of risk and adversity. Psychological resilience has never been investigated live (e.g., in the moment) throughout the duration of an extreme endurance challenge, despite anecdotal accounts of the need for resilience to successfully function in such environments. The aim of the study was to explore psychological resilience with challenge team members (n= 4, mean age = 46.0 years) involved in a 25-day extreme endurance challenge. The object of the challenge was to `TAB' (Tactical Advance to Battle, fast marching with weighted packs)100 peaksin the UK in25 daysand complete long-distance bike rides between base camps. A mixed-methods approach with a focus on qualitative methods was utilised. Speci cally, individual re ective video diaries (n= 47) and focus groups (n= 4) were completed and analysed using interpretative phenomenologi- cal analysis (IPA). At the same
`TAB' (Tactical Advance to Battle, fast marching with weighted packs)100 peaksin the UK in25 daysand complete long-distance bike rides between base camps. A mixed-methods approach with a focus on qualitative methods was utilised. Speci cally, individual re ective video diaries (n= 47) and focus groups (n= 4) were completed and analysed using interpretative phenomenologi- cal analysis (IPA). At the same time, the 10-item Connor Davidson Resilience Scale was employed to measure resilience, which highlighted the individualised and dynamic nature of resilience. Two superordinate themes were identi ed from the video diaries and focus groups, namely, the identi ca- tion of the stressors within extreme environments and strategies to maintain functioning. Stressors were split into subordinate themes of signi cant and every day, and collectively, they created a cluster effect which contributed to pressure associated with operating in these environments. Challenge team members employed various strategies to maintain functioning, including using a challenge mindset to positively appraise pressure as a challenging learning experience. Further research should continue to develop an understanding of how participants completing challenges within extreme environments utilise and develop personal qualities to maintain functioning. Keywords:endurance; extreme environments; mixed methods; resilience; stressors 1. Introduction The understanding of psychological resilience is inhibited due to theoretical and de ni- tional dif culties [1] and remains an elusive concept in sport psychology [2]. Psychological resilience is complex [3], and conceptually, has been identi ed as a trait, process, or out- come to an adverse experience (for an in-depth review, see [4,5]). Historically, resilience has been de ned as a trait which is a constellation of personal qualities that protect individuals from the potential negative effect of stressors [6]. These protective factors help individ- uals to withstand the pressure of the environments they are operating in [7]. However, this trait conceptualisation is outdated [5] because it does not take the environment, and how this interacts with the individual, into account [8], so scholars have suggested that resilience is a process [9] that is different within individuals and is more than just a xed quality [10] and is, in fact, dynamic in nature [11].
are operating in [7]. However, this trait conceptualisation is outdated [5] because it does not take the environment, and how this interacts with the individual, into account [8], so scholars have suggested that resilience is a process [9] that is different within individuals and is more than just a xed quality [10] and is, in fact, dynamic in nature [11]. Resilience has also been highlighted as context-speci c [12], whereby individuals can show resilience in one environment but not Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2021,18, 12707.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2021,18, 12707 2 of 25 another [10], and resilience changes over time [13] where individuals can show resilience at certain times but not others [13]. Resilience can cascade through time and is in uenced by multiple processes across different systems [12]. Therefore, this process can be viewed as a resilience bandwidth [14], where individuals develop resilience over time based on their personality, environment, and the interaction between the two. This combined trait and process conceptualisation of resilience makes resilience an interactive concept between the individual and environment over time [10,13]. In line with this perspective, psychological resilience is de ned here as the role of mental processes and behaviour in promoting personal assets and protecting an individual from the potential negative effect of stressors [15] (p. 675). A grounded theory of psychological resilience in sport [15] was devised by interview- ing twelve Olympic champions from different sports. This theory highlights resilience as a process and how the qualities of the individual interact and operate within the environment they are in. This grounded theory proposed psychological factors (e.g., positive personality, motivation, focus, con dence, and perceived social support) that in uence how athletes appraise stressors in the environment as a challenge to in uence their meta-cognitions. This process protects against possible negative effect of stressors experienced in elite com- petition. This protection is a result of individuals attempting to maintain homeostatic balance with internal and external stressors causing disruption at different bifurcation points [16] with the resources at their disposal. At these points, there is disruption where the individual attempts to reintegrate and re-establish balance within their homeostatic comfort zone. Recent work has highlighted this individual approach in terms of psy- chological exibility in the COVID-19 global pandemic [12,17] with [18] suggesting that exibility is the cornerstone of resilience. This exibility increases psychological resource and is a combination of personal skills and qualities, which leads to increased resilience. Therefore, resilience is an individualised process with different people being affected by these stressors at different intensities and for different durations [13]. Consequently, the environment plays a signi
global pandemic [12,17] with [18] suggesting that exibility is the cornerstone of resilience. This exibility increases psychological resource and is a combination of personal skills and qualities, which leads to increased resilience. Therefore, resilience is an individualised process with different people being affected by these stressors at different intensities and for different durations [13]. Consequently, the environment plays a signi cant role in resilience [14] pointing to the Ecology of Human Development model [19] being a suitable theoretical structure to explore the complex dynamic individualised nature of resilience. This model posits that there is interaction and in uence from elements (e.g., experiences and people) within the immediate environment, but that there are also in uences from other connected environments. For example, an expedition leader in an extreme environment has to contend with stressors in the environment (e.g., weather and terrain) but also stressors from other environments they are involved in (e.g., family and career). All these contribute to in uence how the expedition leader will demonstrate resilience to function in the immediate environment. Additionally, The Everyday Stress Resilience Hypothesis [20] considers resilience through a systems perspective supporting the dynamic context of resilience [21]. This postulates that resilience increases from consistently experiencing stressors in different intensities and situations over time, very similar to the hay fever sufferer who takes a daily teaspoon of local honey to build inoculation to the pollen. Resilience is a result of an individual's ability to manage stress and so their capacity to cope is increased. It has been suggested that resilience can initially protect individuals against adversity and then allow for positive adaptation to occur [4]. This indicates the interaction between the individual and the environment [8], whereby the individual has to appraise the adversity they face as a challenge [14]. This relates to the to the amount of challenge and support present in the environment, and for resilience to be demonstrated, there must be an element of adversity present which is typically present in an extreme environment [6]. This makes extreme environments the ideal setting to investigate psychological resilience. Humans can operate in a wide
face as a challenge [14]. This relates to the to the amount of challenge and support present in the environment, and for resilience to be demonstrated, there must be an element of adversity present which is typically present in an extreme environment [6]. This makes extreme environments the ideal setting to investigate psychological resilience. Humans can operate in a wide range of environments and are capable of functioning within the extremes of these [3]. People will identify different environments as extreme due to their perceived individual capabilities to perform within them, so any environment that pushes an individual outside of their comfort zone can be considered extreme [22]. Examples of extreme environments are extensive with research being completed in space
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2021,18, 12707 3 of 25 ight [23], expeditions in the polar regions [24,25], mountaineering expeditions [26], ocean crossings [27], and adventure/outdoor education programmes [28,29]. Therefore, extreme environments have been de ned as settings that possess extraordinary physical, psycho- logical, and interpersonal demands that require signi cant human adaptation for survival and performance [30]. Extreme environments are very complex and characterised by a range of intense stimuli [31], which people react differently to [23]. Examples of stressors within extreme environments are isolation, danger, risk, fatigue, sensory and social deprivation, and uncertainty [31], and therefore, they can be considered complex. Indeed, this complexity in the extreme environment of counter-terrorism operations has been explored [31]. This complexity can lead to a perceived lack of control among those immersed in them [30]. This may be in part due to a cluster effect, whereby the combination of these stressors can have a greater negative effect on performance as opposed to if individuals were exposed to individual stressors [31]. A review of the literature on working in Antarctica was completed [32] highlighting the stressors of operating in an isolated and con ned environment (ICE), the consequences of living in such an environment (including anxiety and heightened friction, hostility, and con ict) and the coping strategies employed (e.g., preservation of group harmony, maintain schedules, and preparation pre-expedition). Therefore, the psychological response to these extreme environments is often the most important [3]. The contents of adventure education programmes (which are often conducted in extreme environments) typically possess similarities seen in individuals who demonstrate resilience [28]. These included perseverance, self-awareness, social support, con dence, responsibility to others, and achievement. Extreme environments encompass some form of risk and adversity that participants within them need to attend to so that they can positively adapt and show resilience [33]. The consequences of not being able to positively adapt can lead to serious injury or even death. This points to the importance of resilience in these environments [3], and to function in these environments, individuals have to demonstrate resilience [31], with numerous anecdotal accounts of the importance of
attend to so that they can positively adapt and show resilience [33]. The consequences of not being able to positively adapt can lead to serious injury or even death. This points to the importance of resilience in these environments [3], and to function in these environments, individuals have to demonstrate resilience [31], with numerous anecdotal accounts of the importance of resilience within extreme environments and a linguistic analysis of an individual within an Artic environ- ment indicated that resilience might be demonstrated [34]. Despite this, research within extreme environments has mainly focused on the role of personality [26,27] and group functioning [25]. Over the past decade, psychological resilience has been investigated in sport (for reviews see [5,35]), with extensive research on resilience in athletes [36], teams [37], and coaches [38], with the majority of the studies investigating resilience using retrospective research methods [28] and single interviews at one time point [14]. However, these methods may not provide the depth of data required to adequately draw conclusions regarding the complexity of resilience due to recall bias and decay [35]. Thus, it has been suggested that resilience researchers should employ prospective and longitudinal qualitative methods to explore the process of resilience over time [5]. Surprisingly, psychological resilience has never been speci cally investigated within an extreme environment, despite anecdotal accounts of the need for resilience to success- fully function in such environments. Furthermore, no study has attempted to explore resilience live (e.g., in the moment) over time throughout an endurance challenge. There- fore, the aim of the study was to explore resilience live and longitudinally throughout the course of a 25-day challenge undertaken in an extreme environment. 2. Method 2.1. Research Design and Philosophical Underpinnings A relativist ontological position was adopted for this study, as people construct reality and give meaning of speci c phenomena (i.e., psychological resilience) in different ways, interpreting experiences based on their beliefs and past experiences to form their own notion of reality [39]. From an epistemological perspective, a subjective and transactional
this study, as people construct reality and give meaning of speci c phenomena (i.e., psychological resilience) in different ways, interpreting experiences based on their beliefs and past experiences to form their own notion of reality [39]. From an epistemological perspective, a subjective and transactional
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2021,18, 12707 4 of 25 view of knowledge [40] was utilised due to the dynamic nature of the interactions over time between individuals and their environment, with the aim of the study to understand and interpret the world from the perspective of those involved (i.e., individuals completing a challenge in an extreme environment) [39], but also because of the complex [6] and individualised notion [10] of psychological resilience. This epistemological view makes the researcher an active member and inextricably linked with the challenge and the team members in uencing the data collection and analysis [41]. This is known as the researcher as instrument, whereby the characteristics of the researcher may in uence participants. The lead researcher of this paper visited the challenge four times, staying overnight in the base camp and completing tasks and interacting with both the challenge and support team to build a rapport [42]. However, by visiting the challenge, the researcher became connected to the challenge team members through their interactions, which may have in uenced the research [41]. Hence, researchers must undertake self-re exivity [41] and ensure methodological congruence [40], whereby all aspects of the methods are congruent with one's philosophical standpoint. In the present study, our interpretivist paradigm is congruent with the principles of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), chosen as the analysis of the qualitative data because it shows how individuals interpret their experiences based on their sense of reality over the course of the challenge [43,44]. The longitudinal nature of the study also aligns with the philosophical assumptions of IPA [45]. Longitudinal IPA has typically been used in nursing and health research [46,47], and IPA has previously been utilised in a sporting context investigating decreases in performance [36] and adventure psychology [48]. A key tenet of IPA is for the researcher to get as close to the data as possible to access the personal world of the participant taking an active role in what is a dynamic process of analysis [49], which was achieved by the lead researcher's visits. This is because the interpretation process of IPA is double
adventure psychology [48]. A key tenet of IPA is for the researcher to get as close to the data as possible to access the personal world of the participant taking an active role in what is a dynamic process of analysis [49], which was achieved by the lead researcher's visits. This is because the interpretation process of IPA is double hermeneutic, whereby participants are trying to make sense of their world; the researcher is trying to make sense of the participants trying to make sense of their world [49] (p. 51). There also needs to be an understanding of the phenomenon in question (i.e., psychological resilience over time). Thus, for triangulation purposes, a quantitative resilience measure was utilised to track individual changes in resilience over time within the challenge team. Researching in extreme environments presents unique practical challenges when completing research within them [3,50]. Speci cally, there needs to be exibility and sim- plicity in the research design to account for this complexity while maintaining quality data collection [50]. Therefore, creativity is needed when designing methods within extreme environments [3]. This creativity can be achieved by using mixed methods to provide better insights [51] and a holistic view of resilience [35] within extreme environments. Although research has typically tended to use a retrospective cross-sectional design, predominantly utilising quantitative methods, a mixed methods approach was employed to study re- silience in an adventure education programme [28]. Incorporating qualitative methods into research completed in extreme environments can provide a signi cant contribution to the study of resilience by exploring the interaction of the individual within the complexity of an extreme environment [10] by producing a richer understanding of the subjective nature of psychological resilience [35,52]. This would elicit the depth needed to concep- tualise and unpick the complexity and dynamic nature of psychological resilience live and longitudinally [5,52]. Indeed [34] also utilised a mixed method approach to provide insight into the psychological changes of participants before, during, and after an activity completed in an extreme environment, while [53] used mixed methods to explore stressors within a policing environment. Consequently, the current study
concep- tualise and unpick the complexity and dynamic nature of psychological resilience live and longitudinally [5,52]. Indeed [34] also utilised a mixed method approach to provide insight into the psychological changes of participants before, during, and after an activity completed in an extreme environment, while [53] used mixed methods to explore stressors within a policing environment. Consequently, the current study employed a convergent mixed method research design [51,54] with an emphasis on qualitative methods. These qualitative methods explored the individual perceptions of the process of resilience within team members during the 25-day challenge. The quantitative methods allowed resilience to be tracked over time throughout the challenge to enhance the perceived individual changes identi ed in the qualitative methods.
Description
This study explores psychological resilience in a 25-day extreme endurance challenge.