Abstract
he bene cial effects of green and blue areas on human wellbeing are signi cant. Physical activity is a crucial factor for the promotion of good human health and wellbeing, and running constitutes one of the most popular forms of outdoor physical activity. This study examines the effect of six urban route landscapes with different landscape characters used for outdoor running on the heart rates and speeds of 30 people wearing a smartwatch while running. These routes included: (1) a running track in a stadium; (2) a road without street trees; (3) a road with street trees; (4) an urban park without sea view; (5) an urban park with sea view; and (6) a road by the sea. Additionally, a questionnaire survey was conducted to determine participants' perceptions and preferred route landscape for running. In the study, higher heart rates were recorded on routes without trees, including the stadium. The
trees; (3) a road with street trees; (4) an urban park without sea view; (5) an urban park with sea view; and (6) a road by the sea. Additionally, a questionnaire survey was conducted to determine participants' perceptions and preferred route landscape for running. In the study, higher heart rates were recorded on routes without trees, including the stadium. The lowest heart rate was recorded in the park by the sea, followed by the road by the sea, which were at the lowest altitudes amongst the routes studied. Additionally, the highest mean speed of participants was recorded during the run on the road by the sea. The results also showed that irrespectively of the routes, increases in altitude and gradient caused an increase in the heart rates. In the survey, the majority of respondents stated that they would have felt calm and joy during a run either in a park or in a park by the sea. With rising sea levels dictating not to build, carbon capture being necessary in parks, and trees by roads reducing the heat island effect, this study reveals the best route landscapes for runners' health and global warming. Keywords: landscape character; urban green; outdoor running; running routes; physical health; human wellbeing; physical exercise 1. Introduction Climate change is the world's largest health threat of the 21st century and affects dense urban areas more adversely than rural areas [1]. Since 2007, most of the world's population lives in urban areas [2,3]. The negative effects of urbanization are well documented [4,5]. In many cities, the lack of shade and tree canopies to reduce building energy consumption contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and the urban heat island effect [6,7]. In addi- tion, in many cities, with the increase in sea levels and heavy precipitation, buildings in low-lying coastal areas or ood plains are prone to oods [6]. In urban areas, the built environment comprised of both large- and small-scale settings (i.e., cities, neighborhoods, houses, shops, hospitals, etc.), as well as roads, sidewalks, green spaces, and transport networks, contributes signi cantly to climate change and health effects [6]. Through
in sea levels and heavy precipitation, buildings in low-lying coastal areas or ood plains are prone to oods [6]. In urban areas, the built environment comprised of both large- and small-scale settings (i.e., cities, neighborhoods, houses, shops, hospitals, etc.), as well as roads, sidewalks, green spaces, and transport networks, contributes signi cantly to climate change and health effects [6]. Through the careful planning of buildings, land uses, and transport networks, urban areas can support both climate change mitigation and human health [6]. For example, the placement of residential buildings in relation to commercial areas in uences people's choice of transit Sustainability2022,14, 16280.
Sustainability2022,14, 16280 2 of 27 (walking, cycling, driving, or public transport use) and has a signi cant effect on the body mass index (BMI) [6,8]; people show higher BMI scores when car use to commute to work/school and the shops increases [8]. To address climate change, the risks to the popula- tion's public health need to be considered, and an understanding of ecological relations and the imperatives of environmental sustainability need to be established collectively [9,10]. The effect of the environment on human health has been analyzed by many researchers, who demonstrated how green areas have a positive impact on human health. Researchers have demonstrated that urban plants lter the air [11], reduce the impact of noise [12,13], regulate the microclimate, reduce rainwater runoff, and provide aesthetical and cultural values to cities [12]. In densely populated areas, a statistically signi cant positive rela- tionship between green spaces and prosperity has been found, since green spaces provide signi cant outlets for people to improve their well-being [14]. In densely populated areas, the presence of green spaces increases physical activity and contributes to human physical and psychological well-being [7,15,16]. The more densely populated an area is, the more the individual bene ts from using green spaces [16,17]. People who live near green spaces have more opportunities to exercise and consequently more chances at a healthier life [18]. Physical activity is associated with improved mental or spiritual health [16], as well as social health [19,20]. People exercising on a treadmill while viewing a city with urban green or a rural landscape demonstrate reduced blood pressure and a positive effect on self-esteem [21]. Various exercise activities performed in natural environments, such as walking, cycling, horse-riding, shing, canal-boating, and conservation activities, show, post-activity, a signi cant improvement in people's self-esteem and total mood disturbance (anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension) [22]. Health improvements are greater when physical activity is performed within a natural environment than in other areas [22]. The role of physical activity as a factor through which green spaces have a bene cial effect on mental and social health is highlighted in the
cant improvement in people's self-esteem and total mood disturbance (anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, and tension) [22]. Health improvements are greater when physical activity is performed within a natural environment than in other areas [22]. The role of physical activity as a factor through which green spaces have a bene cial effect on mental and social health is highlighted in the study by Zhang et al. [20] but also in the study by Rhodes and Nasuti [23]. Physical activity increases the closer people live to a green space [24] and the larger the size of the green space is [25]. Schipperijn et al. [26] note that the factors that signi cantly affect physical activity are mainly the size and characteristics of the green space. The bene cial effects of green areas on physical and mental health are also mentioned in the study by Kondo et al. [27]. They show that there is a negative relationship between urban green spaces and mortality, heart rate, and violence, and a positive relationship with mood and physical activity. Richardson et al. [28], examining the relationship between green spaces and health, and whether physical activity is the link between green spaces and health, report that people in greener neighborhoods are less likely to have poor mental health and are at reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. Song et al. [29,30] show that walking in the woods compared to walking in the urban context reduces negative emotions such as angerhostility, depressiondistraction, confusion, fatigue, and tensionnervousness and increases positive emotions such as energy. Sellers et al. [31], investigating whether there are differences in the facilitation of exercise between a 30 min walk in a park and one in the urban fabric, show that walking in the park, since it is not interrupted as it happens in the urban fabric due to traf c, creates conditions for people to increase physical activity in relation to walking within the urban fabric. The positive psychological effects of walking in green areas are mentioned in the studies by de Bitro et al. [32] and Koselka et al. [33]. Many studies also report the
is not interrupted as it happens in the urban fabric due to traf c, creates conditions for people to increase physical activity in relation to walking within the urban fabric. The positive psychological effects of walking in green areas are mentioned in the studies by de Bitro et al. [32] and Koselka et al. [33]. Many studies also report the existence of a positive impact of areas that have water, such as seashores, lakes, and rivers, on the general health [3436] and the mental health [3739] of people living or exercising in areas near water. Britton et al. [40], in a systematic review of studies on the effects of water in areas on the health and well-being of people living or exercising in these areas, note that there are immediate health bene ts, especially for the mental health and well-being of individuals. The majority of studies nd a positive or weak correlation between areas with water, and the health and well-being variables.
Sustainability2022,14, 16280 3 of 27 Similar are the results of the literature review by Gascon et al. [39]. The environment in which water is contained works bene cially and improves the health of individuals [41]. Most research studying the effect of the environment on human health is focused on pedestrians and cyclists, while running is among the most popular physical activities [42]. Within urban areas, traf c noise and unexpected pedestrian movements may counteract the psychological bene ts of running [43]. It has been reported that routes in downtown areas and near traf c have low safety and general runnability, whereas routes near parks and in residential areas with low traf c have higher safety for runners [42]. Poor lighting, unleashed dogs, and encounters with cyclists and cars have been reported to impede running [44]. Runners' heart rate and speed are in uenced by varying levels of familiarity and sensorimotor stimuli of routes [45]; familiar routes increase the speed and decrease the heart rate and attention (short-term memory performance) of runners compared with unfamiliar routes [45]. Researchers have found that while running, the alteration in the route gradient causes runners to modify their technique, i.e., step length and frequency [46]. In addition, altitude affects the heart rate, which is applied in training to enhance the performance of runners [47]. To date, the majority of research has investigated the impact of green or blue areas on health without considering in detail the landscape characteristics of the site visited. The presence of green and water, as already mentioned, has a positive effect on human health; however, information is limited on the effect of the various characteristics that compose the landscape, e.g., whether it is green, blue, or urban. Additionally, there is not much information on the effect of the landscape characteristics of routes on runners. The various characteristics and features that compose the landscape character of a location within a city can potentially affect runners' performance and health. The study of landscape characteristics in urban areas can inform design principles or even policies to support human health and well-being. This study aimed
much information on the effect of the landscape characteristics of routes on runners. The various characteristics and features that compose the landscape character of a location within a city can potentially affect runners' performance and health. The study of landscape characteristics in urban areas can inform design principles or even policies to support human health and well-being. This study aimed to examine the effect of varying route landscapes with different characteristics, such as the presence of green and/or sea, as well as differences in altitude and gradient, on the health of people during running and, in particular, their speed and heart rate, as well as the perceptions of people of the various route landscapes. To achieve the aim of the study, a eld study, as well as a separate questionnaire survey, was implemented. The outcomes of the study could facilitate the design of routes for running, which could contribute to supporting human health while running and concomitantly mitigate the negative effects of climate change. 2. Materials and Methods As mentioned above, this study examined different urban route landscapes (i.e., routes with different landscape characters) used for outdoor running. The study was cross-sectional and comprised two phases: a eld study, which measured physiological indicators (i.e., heart rate and speed), and a questionnaire survey, which assessed people's perceptions of the different routes. 2.1. Routes Six routes, 700 m long, in two different areas of Athens (4 in the Galatsi area and 2 in the Palaio Faliro area), Greece, were selected for the study (Figure). Galatsi is a northern suburb of Athens, located on the mainland, 4 km from the city center, at a mean altitude of 160 m. It is a densely populated area of Athens, adjacent to both Alsos Veikou park and the pine forest of Tourkovounia hill. On the other hand, Palaio Faliro is located on the western coast of Attica, 6 km southwest of Athens city center. Within Palaio Faliro and adjacent to the coast is Floisvos Park, which constitutes a popular destination for recreation, and athletic and cultural activities. Avenues characterized by frequent traf c run along one
and the pine forest of Tourkovounia hill. On the other hand, Palaio Faliro is located on the western coast of Attica, 6 km southwest of Athens city center. Within Palaio Faliro and adjacent to the coast is Floisvos Park, which constitutes a popular destination for recreation, and athletic and cultural activities. Avenues characterized by frequent traf c run along one boundary of both the Alsos Veikou park in Galatsi and the Floisvos Park in Palaio Faliro: Leoforos Veikou and Leoforos Poseidonos, respectively.
Sustainability2022,14, 16280 4 of 27Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 30 along one boundary of both the Alsos Veikou park in Galatsi and the Floisvos Park in Palaio Faliro: Leoforos Veikou and Leoforos Poseidonos, respectively. Figure 1. Two main locations of the routes selected for the study; top image [48], bottom image [49]. The landscape characters of the six routes selected for the study, including a stadium, varied. The key elements that composed the landscape character of each route were the presence of plants, traffic, or sea view, and the terrain expressed in terms of altitude and gradient. Therefore, the landscape characters of the studied routes were as follows (Figure 2): (1) Running track in a stadium: It was located in Galatsi and was an open space with a turf football pitch in the center, a running track on the perimeter, and stands along one side of the stadium. The mean altitude was approximately 185 masl. The gradient along the route was approximately level (<2%). (2) Road without street trees: It was located along Leoforos Veikou (avenue) with 4 lanes divided by a planted traffic island, street trees, and 5-storey residential buildings Figure 1. Two main locations of the routes selected for the study; top image [48], bottom image [49]. The landscape characters of the six routes selected for the study, including a stadium, varied. The key elements that composed the landscape character of each route were the presence of plants, traf c, or sea view, and the terrain expressed in terms of altitude and gradient. Therefore, the landscape characters of the studied routes were as follows (Figure): (1)Running track in a stadium: It was located in Galatsi and was an open space with a turf football pitch in the center, a running track on the perimeter, and stands along one side of the stadium. The mean altitude was approximately 185 masl. The gradient along the route was approximately level (<2%). (2)Road without street trees: It was located along Leoforos Veikou (avenue) with 4 lanes divided by a planted traf c island, street trees, and 5-storey residential
pitch in the center, a running track on the perimeter, and stands along one side of the stadium. The mean altitude was approximately 185 masl. The gradient along the route was approximately level (<2%). (2)Road without street trees: It was located along Leoforos Veikou (avenue) with 4 lanes divided by a planted traf c island, street trees, and 5-storey residential buildings containing shops on the main oor on either side of the avenue. The mean altitude was approximately 169 masl. The gradient along the route was approximately level (<2%).
Sustainability2022,14, 16280 5 of 27 (3)Road with street trees: It was located along Leoforos Veikou (avenue) with 4 lanes divided by a planted traf c island; street trees and park plants were present in the studied side, and there were 5-storey residential buildings on the opposite side. The mean altitude was approximately 166 masl. The gradient along the route was approximately level (<2%). (4)Urban park without sea view: It was a path located within a park (Alsos Veikou Park, in Galatsi) with plants on either side. The plants within the park were mainly large-sized coniferous (such asPinus halepensis,P. pinea, andCupressus sempervirens), broadleaved trees (such asBrachychiton acerifolius,Cercis siliquastrum,Eucalyptus globu- lus,Platanus acerifolius,Jacaranda mimosifolia,etc.), and ornamental shrubs. The mean altitude was approximately 173 masl. The gradient along the route altered between 2 and 12%. (5)Urban park by the sea: It was a path located within a park (Floisvos Park, in Palaio Faliro) with plants on one or both sides of the path and constant views of the sea. The plants within the park were mainly medium-sized and fewer large-sized broadleaved trees (such asAcacia cyanophylla,Acacia julibrissin,Acacia dealbata,Casuarina equisetifolia, Eucalyptussp.,Morus alba,Olea europaea,Platanus orientalis, Populus alba,Populus nigra, etc.), and ornamental shrubs. The mean altitude was approximately 5 masl. The gradient along the route was approximately level (<2%). (6)Road by the sea: It was located along Leoforos Poseidonos (avenue) in Palaio Faliro, with 6 lanes divided by a planted traf c island; a tram line, street trees, and views of the sea were present in the studied site, and street trees and 5-storey residential buildings, occasionally containing shops on the main oor, were on the opposite side. The mean altitude was approximately 8 masl. The gradient along the route was approximately level (<2%). 2.2. Field Study In the rst phase of the study, the participants of the eld study were randomly re- cruited from areas near the studied routes during a pause while running. Prospective participants were informed about the study as well as the locations of the six studied routes and voluntarily asked to read and sign a consent form if they wished to participate. Each
Description
This research explores how different running environments affect runners' physiological responses.