Abstract
psychology research of ultra-endurance (UE) athletes focused predominantly on their psychological characteristics, traits, and behaviors. However, their happiness and passion, as well as a unified framework for UE hobby phenomenon, were not sufficiently investigated. This study aims to: (1) identify the main contributors to happiness and passion of non-professional UE athletes; and (2) explore the possible relationships between types of sport passion, motivation, and athletic identity. During data collection, 116 non-professional UE athletes (mean age 43.66 years, SD = 8.97, 16.4% female) responded to an online questionnaire. Statistical analyses revealed that obsessive UE passion (p< 0.05) and amotivation (p< 0.05) predicted lower levels of happiness. A higher level of obsessive passion was predicted by extrinsic motivation (p< 0.005), amotivation (p< 0.05), and exclusivity identity (p< 0.001); a lower level was predicted by social identity (p< 0.05) and years in sports (p< 0.05). Weekly training hours and age correlated positively with passion strength, while amotiva- tion was strongly negatively related to training volume. These results indicate that happiness of UE athletes depends on the type of sport passion formed and the quality of the underlying motivation: obsessive passion and amotivation seem to be the main enemies of happiness for UE athletes. This novel finding connecting passion, happiness, and motivation contributes to both a better under- standing of the psychology of UE athletes and has practical implications for UE athletes, coaches,
athletes depends on the type of sport passion formed and the quality of the underlying motivation: obsessive passion and amotivation seem to be the main enemies of happiness for UE athletes. This novel finding connecting passion, happiness, and motivation contributes to both a better under- standing of the psychology of UE athletes and has practical implications for UE athletes, coaches, athletes’ social circles, and sport psychologists. Due to known maladaptive outcomes of obsessive passion, including its negative impact on overall well-being, health, and now also on happiness, its formation in UE athletes needs to be observed and prevented. While the study shows predictors of obsessive passion and high vs. low obsessive passion, future research should investigate how harmonious passion impacts athletes’ happiness, motivation, and identity. Likewise, research among the UE entourage would help to better understand the social impact of UE as a serious hobby and the formation of UE lifestyles. We also suggest our Temporal Framework for Progressive UE Engagement and Passion, which was further developed based on the results of this study, to be used and validated by sport psychologists. Keywords:ultra-endurance; happiness; harmonious passion; obsessive passion; athletic identity; motivation; serious leisure; sport psychology 1. Introduction 1.1. The Phenomenon of Global UE Sport Popularity Ultra-endurance (UE) sports and extreme UE races have been booming globally and the number of participants has been increasing for the past 20 years [1]. In 2023, the International Trail Running Association had a database of 1.7 million unique runners from 22.400 races, which has been growing explosively year on year since its founding in 2013 [2]. A UE race is defined either by a distance exceeding the marathon distance (42.195 km) or racing time exceeding 6 h [3] in sports such as road and trail-running, triathlon, cycling, cross-country skiing, mountaineering, ski touring, open water swimming, etc. With only a small percentage of professional athletes participating, UE sports are the Sports2024,12, 149.
Sports2024,12, 149 2 of 15 domain of non-professional enthusiasts exercising the “serious leisure hobby” [4]. This growing phenomenon has attracted a lot of academic interest. Researchers studied both the unique physiological markers of UE athletes and their psychological characteristics, traits, and behaviors. Trying to explain the UE phenomenon on a broader social-personal level of lived experiences, in our previous qualitative research of the journey of UE athletes [5] we created a holistic framework of long-term UE engagement and passion development (Figure). We aim to enrich this framework in current and future studies with UE athletes.Sports 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16 a small percentage of professional athletes participating, UE sports are the domain of non- professional enthusiasts exercising the “serious leisure hobby” [4]. This growing phenomenon has attracted a lot of academic interest. Researchers studied both the unique physiological markers of UE athletes and their psychological characteristics, traits, and behaviors. Trying to explain the UE phenomenon on a broader social-personal level of lived experiences, in our previous qualitative research of the journey of UE athletes [5] we created a holistic framework of long-term UE engagement and passion development (Figure 1). We aim to enrich this framework in current and future studies with UE athletes. Figure 1. A Temporal Framework for Progressive UE engagement and Passion Development (adapted from [5]). 1.2. UE Motivation Research Starting with the fundamental question of motivation driving non-professional athletes to engage in the demanding hobby of UE training and racing, in addition to job and family obligations, the sport psychology literature is rich. In one pioneering study on the “experience utility” of mountaineering, described as the “worst possible combination of stultifying boredom punctuated by brief moments of terror” [6] (p. 320), the ego involving motives of self-signaling (recognition, prestige, pride, “desire to impress without appearing that one is trying to impress”), as well as intrinsic motives of goal completion, mastery and meaning for life, were hypothesized by the author, himself a mountain climber [6] (p. 322), whereas the “pleasurable consumption utility” was ruled out. Life meaning was identified as the key motivator for
involving motives of self-signaling (recognition, prestige, pride, “desire to impress without appearing that one is trying to impress”), as well as intrinsic motives of goal completion, mastery and meaning for life, were hypothesized by the author, himself a mountain climber [6] (p. 322), whereas the “pleasurable consumption utility” was ruled out. Life meaning was identified as the key motivator for Marathon des Sables runners [7,8], Polish ultra-marathoners [9], and German ultra-marathoners [10]. Among Japanese ultra-marathoners, the sense of achievement and goal completion/challenge came out as leading motivators [11]. Achievement motives and self-esteem, life coping and life meaning, followed by health motives were the top ones measured for female American ultra-runners [12]. Among Chinese UE and extreme sports athletes, the motives of mastery, enjoyment, psychological and physical condition, affiliation, others’ expectations, competition/ego, but also vertigo and catharsis were found [13]. According to a systematic review of the literature of psychology of ultra-marathon runners, their key motivating factors are the opportunity to achieve personal goals and feeling a sense of achievement [14]. Despite these results, the literature has not landed on a true consensus or fully grounded theoretical framework to explain the motivation of non-professional UE athletes. Different methodologies were used to study the motivation of athletes: the Motivation of Marathon Runners Scale [7,8,9,10,12], semi-structured interviews [13], Positive 1st UE experience Social Environment Need satisfaction C o m p e t e n c e A u t o n o m y High value need yes S o c i a l P a r a d o x R e la t e d n e s s Repeated Behavior &Increased Engagement Finding the Tribe R e i n f o r c e m e n t SELF-IDENTITY Integrated regulation PASSION MASTERY Meaningmaking Intrinsicmotivation LIFESTYLE Habituation Habituation Meta-needs Fulfillment Peak experiences V a l u e s Adaptation Self-Concept & Life story R e i n f o r c e m e n t Synthesis Deliberate practice Reinforcement Dispositional Traits Longevity & Vanity no exit Intrinsicregulation Growth mindset Legend Outcome Milestone Process Figure 1.A Temporal Framework for Progressive
regulation PASSION MASTERY Meaningmaking Intrinsicmotivation LIFESTYLE Habituation Habituation Meta-needs Fulfillment Peak experiences V a l u e s Adaptation Self-Concept & Life story R e i n f o r c e m e n t Synthesis Deliberate practice Reinforcement Dispositional Traits Longevity & Vanity no exit Intrinsicregulation Growth mindset Legend Outcome Milestone Process Figure 1.A Temporal Framework for Progressive UE engagement and Passion Development (adapted from [5]). 1.2. UE Motivation Research Starting with the fundamental question of motivation driving non-professional ath- letes to engage in the demanding hobby of UE training and racing, in addition to job and family obligations, the sport psychology literature is rich. In one pioneering study on the “experience utility” of mountaineering, described as the “worst possible combination of stultifying boredom punctuated by brief moments of terror” [6] (p. 320), the ego involving motives of self-signaling (recognition, prestige, pride, “desire to impress without appearing that one is trying to impress”), as well as intrinsic motives of goal completion, mastery and meaning for life, were hypothesized by the author, himself a mountain climber [6] (p. 322), whereas the “pleasurable consumption utility” was ruled out. Life meaning was identified as the key motivator for Marathon des Sables runners [7,8], Polish ultra-marathoners [9], and German ultra-marathoners [10]. Among Japanese ultra-marathoners, the sense of achievement and goal completion/challenge came out as leading motivators [11]. Achieve- ment motives and self-esteem, life coping and life meaning, followed by health motives were the top ones measured for female American ultra-runners [12]. Among Chinese UE and extreme sports athletes, the motives of mastery, enjoyment, psychological and physical condition, affiliation, others’ expectations, competition/ego, but also vertigo and catharsis were found [13]. According to a systematic review of the literature of psychology of ultra-marathon runners, their key motivating factors are the opportunity to achieve personal goals and feeling a sense of achievement [14]. Despite these results, the literature has not landed on a true consensus or fully grounded theoretical framework to explain the motivation of non-professional UE athletes. Different methodologies were used to study the motivation of athletes: the Motivation of Marathon Runners Scale [7–10,12],
their key motivating factors are the opportunity to achieve personal goals and feeling a sense of achievement [14]. Despite these results, the literature has not landed on a true consensus or fully grounded theoretical framework to explain the motivation of non-professional UE athletes. Different methodologies were used to study the motivation of athletes: the Motivation of Marathon Runners Scale [7–10,12], semi-structured interviews [13], Myers-Briggs Type Indicator [11], Sports Mental Tough- ness Questionnaire [8], and NEO-PI-R (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness Personality Inventory revised) questionnaire [8].
Sports2024,12, 149 3 of 15 1.3. Theoretical Foundation and UE Passion Research This research is grounded in the humanistic paradigm and the Self-Determination Theory of Behavior [15,16], with the latter serving as a meta-theory. According to this theory, humans strive to integrate their behaviors and actions to support and fulfil the three basic psychological needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. This integration or internalization of behaviors happens along a continuum with increasing degrees of autonomy and self-determination. Intrinsic motivation happens when the three basic psychological needs are met in one activity, which is performed for its inherent satisfac- tion [16,17]. The Self-Determination Theory is regarded to be especially fitting to study motivation for physical activity, due to its depth and the different types of regulation involved [18]. The Sport Motivation Scale [19] has been widely applied and is based on the Self-Determination Theory. Many studies using the scale have provided evidence that the more autonomous forms of motivation have important positive implications for athletes’ health and well-being [17]. Specifically, they have been associated with positive outcomes, such as coping strategies [20], positive emotions [19], vitality and well-being [21], and task orientation and engagement in achievement goals [22]. A study on Australian triathletes found a prevalence of both extrinsic and intrinsic motives [23], while American ultra-marathoners were found to have more intrinsic motives (life meaning) than marathon and semi-marathon runners [24]. “Passion is defined as a strong inclination toward an activity that people like, that they find important, and in which they invest time and energy” [25] (p. 757). The Dualistic Model of Passion [25–27] defines two types of passion: harmonious and obsessive. These are characterized by the distinctive integration of passion-driven behaviors into one’s identity as well as the specific outcomes they lead to. Harmonious passion (HP) results from an autonomous internalization of passion-related behaviors, with full autonomy and flexibility and tends to fuel motivation, create flow, increase well-being, and provide meaning in life [28]. Obsessive passion (OP) stems from a controlled internalization of behaviors, characterized by open or latent pressures (e.g., parental, social) and external or internal contingences (e.g., scholarship,
they lead to. Harmonious passion (HP) results from an autonomous internalization of passion-related behaviors, with full autonomy and flexibility and tends to fuel motivation, create flow, increase well-being, and provide meaning in life [28]. Obsessive passion (OP) stems from a controlled internalization of behaviors, characterized by open or latent pressures (e.g., parental, social) and external or internal contingences (e.g., scholarship, awards, self-esteem) linked to the activity, leading to less adaptive and sometimes even maladaptive outcomes, such as negative emotions and conflicts with other aspects of life [28,29]. The measurement tool of dualistic passion, the Passion Scale, [25] has been applied to, and has unsurprisingly confirmed, the high prevalence of passion in sports. In general, both HP and OP predicted deliberate practice, which is in itself a predictor of performance in sports [26,30]. Many studies agree that both forms of passion lead to adherence to exercise routines and tolerance of increased exercise, including continuation of it despite physical problems. However, due to its compulsive nature, OP was found to be consistently associated with maladaptive outcomes [31–33]. More specifically, while HP was positively related to the exercise dependence dimensions of time and tolerance, OP was positively related to all seven exercise dependence dimensions of time, tolerance, withdrawal, contin- uance, intention effects, lack of control, and reduction in other activities [34]. Obsessively passionate endurance runners were found to be more susceptible to injury [35]. OP was also found to be associated with a lower quality of relationships with teammates [36] and with negative impact on team cohesion [37]. Obsessively passionate athletes were found to thrive in highly competitive environments, such as training camps, while harmoniously passionate individuals preferred less competitive and demanding ones [38]. A study with Spanish ultra-trail runners (elite and non-professional) found OP to be highly present in runners aiming to achieve the top position in a race, whereby harmonious passion was strongly present with runners just wanting to finish the race [39]. Research with older French runners (M = 60.79) found that HP was a positive predictor of vitality, which was a direct positive predictor of life satisfaction, whereas OP
found OP to be highly present in runners aiming to achieve the top position in a race, whereby harmonious passion was strongly present with runners just wanting to finish the race [39]. Research with older French runners (M = 60.79) found that HP was a positive predictor of vitality, which was a direct positive predictor of life satisfaction, whereas OP was a direct negative predictor of life satisfaction [40]. In summary, passion seems to represent a key ingredient in the engagement in UE sports, and one which comes with a price for obsessively passionate athletes [41].
Sports2024,12, 149 4 of 15 1.4. UE Identity Research Identity theories emerged as a standalone self-construct in late 1960s and developed into a massive field of research with many sub-branches [42–44]. In sports psychology iden- tity research focused mostly on athletic identity, which is defined as the “degree to which an individual identifies with the athlete role, within the framework of a multidimensional self-concept” [45]. The Athletic Identity Measurement Scale has been widely used to evalu- ate the strength of self-identification with and dedication to sports [46]. It has been mostly used in professional and elite sports and with collegiate athletes. For example, a study on marathon runners [47] found that high athletic identity in marathoners was connected to better athletic performance and more commitment to running, an expanded social network, and led to more frequent experiences of both the positive and negative effects of marathon training. Athletic identity was found to be strongest with the most successful international level athletes and connected with the motivational characteristics of the athlete’s person- ality: win orientation, competitiveness, and positive (for men) and negative (for women) competitive orientation [48]. However, research also showed that high athletic identity can be a risk factor for poor adjustments to events hindering further athletic advancement and performance, such as injury [49]. Indeed, according to the meta-study on athletic identity, it correlates with both positive (intrinsic motivation/commitment, mastery goal orientation) and negative (negative emotions, body disorder issues) factors [50]. It was also found that athletic identity tends to decrease with age [45,51]. The most recent systematic review of athletic identity research [52] confirmed that higher-achieving athletes reported a higher degree of athletic identity and that athletic identity correlated with positive and negative factors, thus showing some parallels with the passion concept presented above. Using social identity theory, a study with UE gravel cyclists [53] found that social identity had a significant direct relationship with motivations, constraints, and negotiation strategies and a significant indirect effect on planned participation. There is, however, no research to date exploring athletic identity of non-professional UE athletes and its relationship with passion and happiness
the passion concept presented above. Using social identity theory, a study with UE gravel cyclists [53] found that social identity had a significant direct relationship with motivations, constraints, and negotiation strategies and a significant indirect effect on planned participation. There is, however, no research to date exploring athletic identity of non-professional UE athletes and its relationship with passion and happiness constructs—a gap to be explored with this research. 1.5. Happiness and Well-Being of UE Athletes Since Aristotle’s eudemonia and his insights into happiness and moral values, there have been three main streams of happiness theories [54,55]: (1) need satisfaction and goal achievement; (2) process and experience of activities; (3) genetic traits and personality disposition. The positive psychology movement took inspiration from all three streams, becoming “the scientific study of positive experiences and positive individual traits, and the institutions that facilitate their development” [56] (p. 630). It defines happiness as a triad of: (1) pleasure or positive emotion (“the pleasant life”); (2) engagement (“the good life”); and (3) meaning (“the meaningful life”) [57]. The concept of happiness is operationalized and measured by subjective well-being, which is defined as person’s cognitive and affective evaluation of their life as a whole [54]. Subjective well-being is generally studied according to three components of: (1) presence of positive emotions (positive affect), (2) absence of negative ones (negative affect), and (3) a cognitive judgement of life satisfaction and fulfilment (cognitive component). Multi- item measures [58–60] are used for the broader coverage of each of the three components and also for investigation of correlations among them. One example of such a scale is the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire [61]. In a study comparing positive moods generated by leisure activities using the Oxford Happiness Inventory [62], only sport/exercise resulted in increased happiness. In serious leisure sports, most research focused on the impact of people´s leisure experiences, including participation in sport, on their well-being [63–65], arriving at a general agreement of a positive relationship, in spite of different theoretical approaches [66]. The topic of happiness and subjective well-being among non-professional UE athletes has, however, been dramatically under-researched. One creative approach
in increased happiness. In serious leisure sports, most research focused on the impact of people´s leisure experiences, including participation in sport, on their well-being [63–65], arriving at a general agreement of a positive relationship, in spite of different theoretical approaches [66]. The topic of happiness and subjective well-being among non-professional UE athletes has, however, been dramatically under-researched. One creative approach [67] applied prospect theory to happiness research—as a reward for “torture” in long-distance triathlon. It was
Description
The study investigates happiness and passion in non-professional ultra-endurance athletes.