Emotional Intelligence in Ultra-Marathon Runners: Implications for Recovery Strategy and Stress Responses during an Ultra-Endurance Race

im of this research was to investigate the role of trait emotional intelligence (EI) in recovery stress states in a mountain ultra-marathon (MUM) race. Recovery stress states of 13 nishers were assessed before, during, and immediately after the end of an extreme MUM, whereas emotional intelligence was assessed 2 days before the MUM race. Temporal evolutions of recovery stress states were examined. Stress states increased after the race whereas recovery states decreased in all participants. In addition, recovery states were in uenced by the trait EI level assessed before the competition. Results supported the hypothesis that trait EI tends to have a positive effect by boosting recovery strategies. In this perspective, trait EI could have a protective role against stress

were examined. Stress states increased after the race whereas recovery states decreased in all participants. In addition, recovery states were in uenced by the trait EI level assessed before the competition. Results supported the hypothesis that trait EI tends to have a positive effect by boosting recovery strategies. In this perspective, trait EI could have a protective role against stress and improve pre-competition mental preparation. High scores of trait EI (in comparison to low scores of trait EI) could have helped athletes to increase recovery states in order to improve their psychological adaptation to one of the most dif cult races in the world. Keywords:emotional intelligence; recovery stress states; mountain ultra-marathon 1. Introduction Extreme sports situations demand multidimensional psychological adaptive responses which could depend on recovery stress states [1], as well as individual factors such as emotional intelligence [2]. Biopsychological perspective of recovery and stress [3], em- braces physical and biopsychosocial dimensions of both stress and recovery to indicate the extent to which someone is physically and/or mentally stressed, as well as whether that person is capable of using individual strategies for recovery and which strategies are used. EI refers to a form of intelligence which aims to capture individual differences in interpersonal and intrapersonal emotional functioning [4–6]. Its potential contribution in sporting competitions has been demonstrated and is considered to be a key factor in improving individual adaptation, notably with regard to the stress process [2]. During the last few decades, the recovery process has been associated with stress states to explain how athletes may be better able to tolerate and buffer stress from training and competition [7]. Whereas the relationship between stress and EI has been largely documented, no study has investigated the relationship between EI and recovery. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the involvement of EI in recovery stress states. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 9290.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 9290 2 of 13 Extreme situations are demanding and challenging. They impose on an individual the need to cope with exceptional physical or psychosocial circumstances that require adaptive responses that engage personal resources which could be overwhelmed [8]. A mountain ultra-marathon (MUM) race could be considered one of the most extreme sport- ing situations after polar expeditions [9] because it implies a complex and multidimensional adaptation de ned by the dynamic impact between environmental and personal constraints and resources (i.e., physical, psychological, and social) on adjustment [8,10]. During a MUM, athletes are exposed to a variety of stressors and have to run for extended periods over long distances and dangerous terrain with changing altitudes in an uncertain and risky environment [11]. Exposure to these stressful environmental and climatic conditions tends to push participants to draw on their own resources in order to perform beyond their ordinary limits [12]. MUM is by de nition a playing eld for in situ ecological research investigating psychological impairments that are mirrored in multidimensional psycho- logical processes, such as emotional disturbances [13] and increases/decreases in recovery stress states [14]. These impairments were also observed during the month following the competition, highlighting that ultra-endurance sports are challenging situations with long-term repercussions [14,15]. According to Lazarus and Folkman, the seminal model of psychological stress (1984), extreme situations can exacerbate stress states [8]. Beyond a certain point, any effort to manage an excessive stress state could engage personal resources and in turn cause their potential consumption if the recovery process is not implemented [16]. However, a certain level of perceived stress is an integral part of psychological adaptation [17]. The objective is no longer to annihilate stress but to attempt to reach a balance between stress state and personal resources. The recovery process actually represents a core concept in investigating how to deal with and buffer the stress state because it helps to protect, build, re ll or restore personal resources [7,18]. Recovery is de ned as a multilevel process used to tolerate stress and to re-establish performance abilities and psychological and

a balance between stress state and personal resources. The recovery process actually represents a core concept in investigating how to deal with and buffer the stress state because it helps to protect, build, re ll or restore personal resources [7,18]. Recovery is de ned as a multilevel process used to tolerate stress and to re-establish performance abilities and psychological and physical strength in order to optimize situational conditions [7]. Thus, recovery is based on proactive and self-initiated activities [18–20]. In the last decade, there has been an increased interest in the investigation of the interrelated dynamics of recovery stress states in order to better understand the psycho- logical adaptations in extreme situations. The theoretical model of the recovery stress process [3,19] leads to a joint measurement of the extent to which an individual is fre- quently and multidimensionally stressed (social, emotional, physical, and behavioral) and its recovery-associated activities/states. The objective is to reach an individual biopsychoso- cial balance in order to counterbalance the negative effects of stress, help to adjust to the situation, and to achieve a continuous high-level performance [3]. Results from individuals' exposure to spatial simulations [21], polar stations, i.e., wintering in Antarctica [22], and extreme sports [14] have provided strongevidence of the importance of considering the recovery stress process. Unbalanced recovery stress states (i.e., increased stress states and decreased recovery states) can lead to dysfunctional outcomes such as chronic fatigue and concomitant overtraining, and psychological exhaustion [1,20]. Consequently, the participant's adaptation to sports training and competition is compromised [1,19]. Results of previous studies on ultra-endurance races showed that participants have simultaneously reported an increase in stress states and a decrease in recovery states mirrored, notably, in the emotional exhaustion dimension [14,15]. The repercussions could be observed up to four weeks after the race, highlighting the long-term impact of a stressful event on the recovery stress states [15]. In particular, evolutions in the recovery stress states experienced by MUM runners in the month following a demanding MUM race have been characterized by a significant linear increase in recovery and a linear decrease in stress states [15]. Results show

to four weeks after the race, highlighting the long-term impact of a stressful event on the recovery stress states [15]. In particular, evolutions in the recovery stress states experienced by MUM runners in the month following a demanding MUM race have been characterized by a significant linear increase in recovery and a linear decrease in stress states [15]. Results show that the harder the situation is, the longer the need to evaluate and manage recovery stress states. However, even in extreme environments, recovery stress states are not always unbal- anced [22,23], suggesting that personal resources could be sustained. Results from previous research showed that recovery stress states could be modulated according to individual

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 9290 3 of 13 difference factors such as perceived stress and perceived control [19,22,24]. Speci cally, these studies have shown that perceived stress was positively linked to psychological, physiological, and social stress responses whereas perceived control was positively linked to recovery strategies [19,22,24]. These results provided supporting evidence that indi- vidual cognitive resources were involved in managing the stress process [10,17]. These results corroborate the cognitive–motivational–relational theory [10] and emphasize that the interaction between the person and the environment is mediated by the degree to which a situation is appraised as stressful and controllable. These ndings suggest that individual differences could help explain the differences in psychological responses within a challenging situation [25]. Among individual variables identi ed as factors in uencing stress management, EI could determine an athlete's ability to handle psychological stress and also facilitate physical and psychological recovery [26]. The theoretical nature of EI-related constructs remains assigned to a wide array of concepts and models [27]. EI provides an interesting framework for assessing individual differences with regard to how individuals identify, express, understand, regulate and use their own and others' emotions to ultimately guide their thinking and actions [4,5]. Among the several theoretical frameworks focusing on EI [5,28–30], the present study was grounded within the trait model of EI [29,30] based on the rationale that EI was conceptualized in the present study as an individual difference variable. The trait model [29] de nes EI as a lower-order personality trait that is mainly evaluated using a self-report measure [30]. A systematic review [2] concluded that EI had a protective role with regard to the stress process in athletes. For example, EI was found to be associated with the use of more ef cient coping strategies (i.e., task-oriented coping) to manage stress [31]. Furthermore, Laborde, Dosseville, Guill²n, and Chavez [32] indicated that EI positively predicted per- ceived control, coping (e.g., task-oriented coping strategies, coping effectiveness), and performance satisfaction. In addition, numerous studies support the idea that EI is a key factor in improving individual adaptation [33,34]. Individuals with high EI would be more

cient coping strategies (i.e., task-oriented coping) to manage stress [31]. Furthermore, Laborde, Dosseville, Guill²n, and Chavez [32] indicated that EI positively predicted per- ceived control, coping (e.g., task-oriented coping strategies, coping effectiveness), and performance satisfaction. In addition, numerous studies support the idea that EI is a key factor in improving individual adaptation [33,34]. Individuals with high EI would be more competent in coping with challenges and would perceive less stress [35] and more well-being [36]. EI may help to explain how stress is physiologically better tolerated and buffered by certain individuals [37]. Previous research within the context of MUM race also supported the notion that EI is positively associated with pleasant emotional states [38]. The connection between EI and pleasant emotions could be crucial to depicting the relationship between EI and the recovery process. In her broaden-and-build theory, Fredrickson [39] posited that experiences of pleasant emotions broaden people's momentary thought–action repertoires in a way that serves to build their enduring personal resources and subsequent emotional well-being. Several empirical studies provide evidence supporting this theoreti- cal approach [40] including studies in sports settings e.g., [41]. Consequently, EI could be expected to play a major role in boosting recovery processes and helping to protect, build, re ll or restore personal resources when individuals have faced stressful situations. Based on previous studies in extreme situations, the interplay between recovery and stress states has been shown to play a major role in the psychological adaptation processes. However, some gaps remain in the research. Speci cally, the role of trait EI in the recovery process has not yet been investigated whereas promising theoretical support exists for the link between EI and recovery [39]. Consequently, the present study aims to provide experimental evidence regarding the psychological adaptation in MUM runners by investigating the recovery stress process and the relationship between recovery stress states and trait EI, especially before, during, and after one of the most extreme MUM races. This study could provide insights on how stress states could be tolerated and/or buffered in MUM in regard to recovery strategies [7]. Considering previous results on recovery stress

adaptation in MUM runners by investigating the recovery stress process and the relationship between recovery stress states and trait EI, especially before, during, and after one of the most extreme MUM races. This study could provide insights on how stress states could be tolerated and/or buffered in MUM in regard to recovery strategies [7]. Considering previous results on recovery stress states in ultra-marathons [14,15], it was hypothesized that (1) stress states would increase during and after the race compared to pre-race, whereas (2) recovery would decrease in the same time evolution. Furthermore, based on previous research on EI [2], we hypothesized

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 9290 4 of 13 that: (3) athletes with low trait EI would report lesser recovery and higher stress states during the MUM race than athletes with a high trait EI. 2. Methods 2.1. Participants Thirteen athletes running an extreme MUM event (2 women and 11 men), aged from 29 to 52 years old (Mage = 40.08 yrs, SDage = 6.76), voluntarily participated in this study. Initially, 17 participants were recruited through an announcement for this study, which was part of a larger research project that focused on the physiological consequences of this race, which is considered to be the most challenging mountain ultra-marathon in the world. Of the 17 participants initially enrolled in the study, 13 completed the race (inclusion criterion) and thus constituted our sample for this study. The MUM was the Tor des G²ants ® (TdG) and consisted of a semi-self-suf ciency race where the runners covered a total of 338 km with a cumulated altitude of 30,959 m of positive elevation under changing climate conditions (temperatures between 9 and 15 C). For the rest, rescue, and refreshment points, runners were able to rely on the seven base camps spaced approximately 50 km apart. On average, participants accomplished the race in 132.67 h (SD= 13.16). All participants signed a consent form stipulating their right to withdraw from the experiment at any time without prejudice. This study was approved by the local ethics committee in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (amended 2013). 2.2. Measures 2.2.1. Brief Emotional Intelligence Scale (BEIS-10) The BEIS-10 [42] is based on both the EI model of Salovey and Mayer [6] and the work of Lane et al. [43]. The BEIS-10 was administered to athletes to measure their trait EI using a 6-point Likert scale (1 = never to 6 = always). The 10-item version is a short and ef cient measure to quickly assess an individual's perception of the extent to which they appraise, regulate, and use emotions. For this study, the internal consistency of the BEIS-10 was 0.84. 2.2.2. Recovery Stress States (RestQ-36-R-Sport) Based on the

trait EI using a 6-point Likert scale (1 = never to 6 = always). The 10-item version is a short and ef cient measure to quickly assess an individual's perception of the extent to which they appraise, regulate, and use emotions. For this study, the internal consistency of the BEIS-10 was 0.84. 2.2.2. Recovery Stress States (RestQ-36-R-Sport) Based on the original Rest-Q for athletes [7], the French version of the RestQ-36-R- Sport questionnaire [18] was used to quickly assess the multidimensional nature (physical, emotional, behavioral, and social) of recovery and stress states. This questionnaire was developed to quickly measure the frequency of current stress along with the frequency of recovery using a 6-point Likert scale (1 = never to 6 = always). Higher scores in the stress responses reflected an intense and elevated perceived stress state. Higher scores in the recovery strategies reflected a high frequency of using numerous recovery strategies. Pre- TdG instructions given to participants for the completion of the RestQ-36-R-sport referred to «the 3 last days» whereas Per- and Post-TdG instructions referred to «the 3 last hours» in order to evaluate the psychological states during the MUM. The internal consistency for total stress and recovery scores across the several measurement times ranged from 0.53 to 0.98. Cronbach alpha tends to increase with an increase in the number of participants [44], leading researchers to suggest a cut-off value of 0.60 for a low sample size [45]. Other researchers prefer the use of the raw average inter-item correlation (AIIC) as a statistical marker of internal consistency. For this, a rule of thumb is offered by Clark and Watson [44] who recommend AIIC scores higher than 0.15. In the present study, all the AIIC scores were higher than 0.15. 2.3. Procedure The thirteen participants rated their recovery stress states and trait EI on self-report questionnaires in the 3 h before the race (Pre-MUM). Secondly, while the majority of research on emotion, EI, or recovery stress states conducted in ultra-endurance sports has focused on the differences pre- and post-race e.g., [13–15], participants in the present investigation also rated their recovery stress

Procedure The thirteen participants rated their recovery stress states and trait EI on self-report questionnaires in the 3 h before the race (Pre-MUM). Secondly, while the majority of research on emotion, EI, or recovery stress states conducted in ultra-endurance sports has focused on the differences pre- and post-race e.g., [13–15], participants in the present investigation also rated their recovery stress states during the race. This measure was completed at the Donnas camp (located at the mid-race point: Per-MUM) after athletes had run 155 km with an

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 9290 5 of 13 average running time of 51 h (SD= 3.41). Thirdly, the athletes completed the RestQ-36-R-sport questionnaire for the last time during the three-hour period after finishing the race. 2.4. Statistical Analysis Shapiro–Wilk and Levene's tests were used to verify data normality and the homo- geneity of variances at each time point. Trait EI data were analyzed: (a) using correlational analysis with recovery stress states scores on the total sample; and (b) by dividing its scores into either a high or low group based on the median value, a common practice within the literature [46–48]. While dichotomization is sometimes criticized in the literature [49], recent re-evaluations have shown that this practice is a robust, reliable, and appropriate statistical analysis when independent variables are uncorrelated [46–48]. A median split was therefore used to dichotomize participants based on their scores of trait EI. The re- sults from our sample showed that the low trait EI scores and high trait EI scores were uncorrelated (p= 0.07) and provided evidence supporting the use of a median split in the present study. Literature has also shown that conducting a median split does not increase the likelihood of a Type I error [47]. Additionally, given that the scores for all factors at the different time measures were normally and homogeneously distributed, we conducted a set of multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) with repeated measures to test: (1) The effect of time on recovery stress states; (2) the effect of trait EI groups (high EI vs. low EI); and (3) the effect of the interaction of trait EI-groups * time. Follow-up univariate one-way ANOVAs were conducted in order to target signi cant differences detected using MANOVA. Pairwise comparisons (post hoc) were conducted using Tukey's HSD. 3. Results 3.1. Descriptive Analyses Descriptive statistics for recovery stress states and trait EI are shown in Table. Results of correlational analysis for the total sample showed that recovery was negatively correlated with stress state (r= 0.59,p< 0.05) whereas trait EI was not signi cantly correlated with stress state and recovery state. Table 1.

This study examines the impact of emotional intelligence on recovery and stress in ultra-marathon runners.