Changes of Mood and Cognitive Performance before and after a 100 km Nighttime Ultramarathon Run

amarathons are becoming an increasingly popular endurance sport. Year after year, the demands on athletes' skills and endurance increase. Ultramarathons are particularly taxing on athletes' psychological functioning. This study assessed the relationships between taking part in a nighttime ultramarathon and changes in mood and cognitive functioning. The study included 20 experienced runners aged 26–57 (M=37.29; SD=7.94) who had M=7.08, SD=5.41 (range 3–44) years of experience running. There were 18 men and 2 women. The mood states were measured twice, just before the start of the run and shortly after crossing the nish line, using the Polish version of the UMACL UWIST Mood Adjective Checklist by Mathews, Chamberlain, and Jones. To assess cognitive functioning, the Stroop Color and Word Test and “Forward digit span” subtest from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale were used. We observed statistically signi cant changes in the mood of the runners: tense arousal, associated with the experienced stress, was signi cantly higher before the run than immediately after the nish. Moreover, we observed an improvement in cognitive functioning after nishing the 100 km run on both of the trials on the Stroop color word test and on the forward digit span test. Keywords: extreme-endurance sports; sport psychology; executive functions; psychology of running; cognition in sport 1. Introduction Kaszubska Poniewierka (meanining in polish Cashubian ill-treatment) is a 100 km long cross-country ultramarathon. It takes place at

in cognitive functioning after nishing the 100 km run on both of the trials on the Stroop color word test and on the forward digit span test. Keywords: extreme-endurance sports; sport psychology; executive functions; psychology of running; cognition in sport 1. Introduction Kaszubska Poniewierka (meanining in polish Cashubian ill-treatment) is a 100 km long cross-country ultramarathon. It takes place at night in the Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland, mostly in forests and hills. The popularity of this race increases every year, alongside the numbers of people doing ultramarathons in Poland, Europe, and the United States. An ultramarathon is a run of any distance longer than 42.195 km (26.2 miles). However, the distances within this category vary greatly and depend on the race and the vision of its organizers, who often compete to organize the most extreme events. For example, races can take place in deserts at extremely high temperatures (e.g., Death Valley), in the Arctic, on high mountains, or simply with incredibly long distances. The longest ultramarathon to date had a distance of 4989 km and lasted 52 days—this means that participants had to run a distance greater than two marathons each day. It is worth noting that the average time for a professional runner to complete a marathon is around 2 h and 40 min in Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 8400; doi:10.3390 /ijerph17228400 /journal/ijerph

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 8400 2 of 10 women and about 2 h and 10 min in men, while in the case of ultramarathon runs this time is about three times longer (approx. 8 h in women and 6 h 50 min in men) [1]. Studies show that marathoners di er from ultra-marathon runners by anthropometric characteristics [2], training speed (ultramarathon participants run slower) and experience with marathon running (UM runners have more nished marathon runs than marathon runners) [2,3] Furthermore, ultramarathon runners have greater pain tolerance than marathon runners [4]. As the popularity of these sports increases, the interest of researchers in this type of extreme endurance sport also increases. More and more people want to overcome the boundaries of their physical and mental endurance. It has been repeatedly shown that ultramarathons are associated with a signi cantly higher risk of dehydration, overexertion, or dysfunction of the gastrointestinal or urinary systems [5–8]. Obviously, these di culties a ect the mental wellbeing of runners, who are often focused on the internal struggle with these di culties. Research on the psychological aspects of running ultramarathons is often prone to methodological di culties stemming from the low number of individuals who agree to take part in such research, as doing so could make the already di cult task of running an ultramarathon even harder. As mentioned by Roebuck [9] in their meta-analysis of psychological research on ultramarathons, studies usually focus on personality features, motivation, mood, cognitive processes and functions, perception of pain, phenomena associated with psychological disorders such as addiction to physical exercise, the phenomenological aspects of running, or psychological interventions. This study focuses on the cognitive functioning of nighttime ultramarathon runners. 1.1. Mood in Ultramarathons Results of the research on the mood of ultramarathon runners are consistent [9]. The overwhelming majority of studies found, unsurprisingly, that after running an ultramarathon, levels of vigor drop, and levels of mental and physical fatigue increase [10–14]. Our research group observed similar results in our previous study conducted during a 100 km run on a track. The UWIST Mood Adjective Check List revealed

on the mood of ultramarathon runners are consistent [9]. The overwhelming majority of studies found, unsurprisingly, that after running an ultramarathon, levels of vigor drop, and levels of mental and physical fatigue increase [10–14]. Our research group observed similar results in our previous study conducted during a 100 km run on a track. The UWIST Mood Adjective Check List revealed a clear drop in energy arousal 12 h after nishing the run [10]. Similarly, previous research suggests a post-race decrease in tension associated with pre-race stress [10–12,15]. Tension and pre-race stress are understandable in both beginner ultramarathoners, who have not previously nished races over 42.195 km, as well as in experienced runners who know what di culties they will face and how unpleasant the consequences of nishing an ultramarathon can be. It is important to discuss to what extent mood during the run in uences the runners' results [16]. Undoubtedly, the emotions experienced by a runner can make it more di cult to concentrate on things important to a runner—especially those associated with positive self-talk, goal setting, and controlling one's thoughts. However, it is also important to emphasize that sports psychology has recently come to emphasize that control over thoughts and emotions does not always lead to better performance, and it can itself be a factor leading to loss of focus on the task [13]. It is thus important to examine cognitive functions, including the short-term memory and executive functions of runners and their relationship with the runners' moods. 1.2. Cognitive Functioning and Endurance Sports Physical activity may in uence cognitive functions as a result of the increase in the activity of the prefrontal cortex, which could translate into better results in terms of attention, memory, and executive functions [17]. Every sports discipline relies on cognitive and motor skills to di erent extents [18]. For example, in team sport such as volleyball, it seems that reaction time, executive control and perceptual speed are important [19], and cognitive functioning is dependent on the di erent competitive levels of players [20]. In the case of endurance sports, it seems that motor inhibition

Every sports discipline relies on cognitive and motor skills to di erent extents [18]. For example, in team sport such as volleyball, it seems that reaction time, executive control and perceptual speed are important [19], and cognitive functioning is dependent on the di erent competitive levels of players [20]. In the case of endurance sports, it seems that motor inhibition is one of the more important resources [18]. On the other hand, in the case of older individuals, endurance sports, including taking part in marathons, may foster the retention of cognitive functioning for a longer time. This especially concerns executive functions [21]—physical activity may be associated with less loss of brain tissue in areas associated with control skills [22]. However, there are some results showing that there is an improvement in the cognitive performance of elderly runners. [23]. However, in young and

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 8400 3 of 10 healthy individuals, the relationship between exercise and improvement in cognitive functions seems to be less pronounced [24]. Moreover, athletes appear to score better on scales which measure processing speed [25]. Arousal associated with doing sports may also improve or decrease performance during and/or after a workout. In the case of running, memory seems to worsen during running, but slightly improve after the run. Martinez-Navarro et al. [26] reported improved alertness and reaction time but no di erence in runners' cognitive functioning before and after a marathon [26], but there is still a small number of studies focused on the cognitive function of marathon runners. 1.3. Brain Structures Engaged during Performing the Tests Executive functions characterized by intentionality [27] depend on a neuronal circuit in which the prefrontal cortex plays an important role [28]. The dorsolateral part of the prefrontal cortex is active during performance of the Stroop color and word test [29]. The caudate nucleus plays an important role in executive control associated with cognitive elasticity [30]. Short-term verbal memory associated with memorizing digits engages the part of the brain on the border of the middle and superior temporal gyrus and the underlying white matter [31]. Short-term memory may also be associated with the left posterior superior temporal gyrus and sulcus [30], as well as white matter volume in the fronto-parietal regions [32]. 1.4. Present Study Findings presented in the literature concerning the mood and cognitive functioning of athletes doing extreme endurance sports are inconsistent. Moreover, there are no data about nighttime cross-country races, and there is still a lack of research focusing on the consequences of endurance training and the psychological aspects of physical activity for marathon runners [33]. This encouraged us to look more closely at this phenomenon. The particularly interesting aspect of this research problem is how taking part in such an extremely physically and psychologically demanding run may impact the cognitive functioning of athletes immediately after nishing it. It can be hypothesized that athletes' stress levels will be higher before than after the run. Moreover, we

This encouraged us to look more closely at this phenomenon. The particularly interesting aspect of this research problem is how taking part in such an extremely physically and psychologically demanding run may impact the cognitive functioning of athletes immediately after nishing it. It can be hypothesized that athletes' stress levels will be higher before than after the run. Moreover, we assume that the stress experienced by runners before the run will be associated with their performance on cognitive functioning tests. It is di cult to predict the direction of this correlation, as the stress experienced before the race could be related to both the increase and the impairment of attention focus and short-term memory. Assessing the direction of this correlation is the main goal of this study. Given the number of participants, the obtained results will be exploratory and can shed light on the future investigation of di erences between nighttime and daytime running. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Participants The study included 20 experienced runners aged 26–57 (M=37.29; SD=7.94) who had M=7.08, SD=5.41 (range 3–44) years of experience running. There were 18 men and 2 women. The subjects trained an average of M=4.96; SD=1.76 times a week and ran an average of M=204.25 km, SD=118.26 km a month. Information about the study was distributed through internet forums for runners and by the event organizers. Purposive sampling was used—participants volunteered to take part in the study. The inclusion criteria for the study concerned active participation in ultramarathon competitions, a minimum of three years of experience in ultramarathon running and written consent to participate in the study. Two of the subjects did not nish the run—one man withdrew from the race after 30 km due to gastrointestinal problems and one woman nished the race after having run a regular marathon (42 km).

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 8400 4 of 10 2.2. Procedure The protocol of this study was approved by the Independent Bioethics Committee of the Medical University of Gda ´nsk: NKBBN/434/2018. The Kaszubska Poniewierka run took place on 15 September 2018, starting at midnight and ending at 16.00 (after which time results were no longer recorded). The run itself is considered a quali cation run by the International Trail Running Association and the participants gain quali cation points to take part in the Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc and the Courmayeur–Champex–Chamonix run. The run has a set route, consisting of 95% trail, 80% of which is through forest. Several di culties await the participants during the race, such as (during the initial phases of the run) running at night on demanding terrain, with sections with fallen trees, steep inclines and declines, roots sticking out of the ground, and narrow and steep paths (single tracks) on a cli just over water. The di culty was enhanced by the fact that the most technically demanding part of the run took place at night. There were 175 participants in the race (of whom 20 took part in this study). The race was 100 km long and 113 runners nished within the time limit. The winner nished the race in 09:45:03, after which he went on to run another cross-country, of 51 km, which he also won. The last participant nished the run in 15:57:40. The runners who took part in this study proceeded to the research stand near the start line after collecting their race pack. They rst completed the UWIST Mood Adjective Checklist and then, with another researcher, they completed the Stroop test and the memory test (pre-test). Then they proceeded to the start line. The time di erence between the rst participant and the last participant completing the tests was about 35 min, with the last completing the tests 10 min before the start. Then after about 10 h and having moved the research stand to the nish line, a researcher invited the nishers to the post-test. The tests were completed in

start line. The time di erence between the rst participant and the last participant completing the tests was about 35 min, with the last completing the tests 10 min before the start. Then after about 10 h and having moved the research stand to the nish line, a researcher invited the nishers to the post-test. The tests were completed in the same order and, after the psychological measurements, blood was taken and anthropometric as well as strength measurements were performed (for the purposes of another study). 2.3. Methods The UWIST Mood Adjective Checklist was used to measure the mood of participants [34], in its Polish adaptation [35]. During the test, the runners assessed the degree to which their present mood was described by each of the 29 listed adjectives (on a scale from 1 to 4). The nal score is represented by three dimensions: energetic arousal (EA), tense arousal (TA) and hedonic tone (HT). High levels of energetic arousal correspond with such feelings as being restful, energetic and vigorous, and high scores of tense arousal correspond to being stressed, anxious or tense. Hedonic tone is associated with being cheerful, satis ed, and happy (high scores), or concerned, depressed and sad (low scores; [35]). Before completing the test, the athletes were asked about any potential situations unrelated to training that may modify their mood, but no such factors were declared. Executive functions and short-term memory were measured using the following tools. The Stroop color and word test assesses executive functioning associated with goal-oriented activity [27], including cognitive elasticity and the ability to inhibit cognitive interference, which is strongly related to control over one's own behavior, e.g., before making an impulsive response [28], as well as to working memory and the ability to focus one's attention. The “Forward digit span” subtest from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale assesses short-term memory of verbal material by getting the subject to repeat a series of digits [36]. The temporary retention of the presented material is a characteristic of short-term memory [37]. 2.4. Statistical Analysis Statistical analyses were conducted using Statistica 13.0 software (TIBCO Software Inc.).

to focus one's attention. The “Forward digit span” subtest from the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale assesses short-term memory of verbal material by getting the subject to repeat a series of digits [36]. The temporary retention of the presented material is a characteristic of short-term memory [37]. 2.4. Statistical Analysis Statistical analyses were conducted using Statistica 13.0 software (TIBCO Software Inc.). In order to evaluate the di erences in the studied variables, non-parametric tests of di erences for independent groups were used (sign test). The non-parametric Spearman's rank-order test was used in order to measure the correlation.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2020,17, 8400 5 of 10 3. Results The rst step in the study was to assess the di erences between mood before and after the ultramarathon. Before the run, participants exhibited average levels of all of the measured dimensions of mood. On the other hand, after the run, energetic arousal and tense arousal oscillated around low scores, while in the case of hedonic tone, the average scores were high. Participants' sten scores for mood dimensions are presented in they-axis in Figure.Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 10 around low scores, while in the case of hedonic tone, the average scores were high. Participants’ sten scores for mood dimensions are presented in the y-axis in Figure 1. Figure 1. Changes in mood before and after running 100 km. Percentage distributions of mood before and after the run are presented in detail in Table 1. Table 1. Mood before and after the run. Intensity Before Afte r p % n % n Energetic arousal Low 30.00% 6 52.63% 10 0.151 Average 25.00% 5 21.05% 4 0.767 High 45.00% 9 26.32% 5 0.216 Tense arousal Low 15.00% 3 68.42% 12 0.002 Average 35.00% 7 26.32% 5 0.542 High 50.00% 10 5.26% 1 0.002 Hedonic tone Low 20.00% 2 0.00% 0 0.039 Average 35.00% 7 10.53% 2 0.063 High 45.00% 9 89.47% 16 0.036 The only significant difference was in tense arousal (TA). TA before the run (M = 19.85; SD = 4.82) turned out to be significantly higher than TA after the run (M = 12.80; SD = 4.44); Z = 2.46, p = 0.014. The next part of the analyses regarded reaction times on the Stroop color and word test. The reaction times of participants before and after the run are presented (in seconds) in Table 2. Figure 1.Changes in mood before and after running 100 km. Percentage distributions of mood before and after the run are presented in detail in Table. Table 1.Mood before and after the run. Intensity Before After p % n % n Energetic arousal

test. The reaction times of participants before and after the run are presented (in seconds) in Table 2. Figure 1.Changes in mood before and after running 100 km. Percentage distributions of mood before and after the run are presented in detail in Table. Table 1.Mood before and after the run. Intensity Before After p % n % n Energetic arousal Low 30.00% 6 52.63% 10 0.151 Average 25.00% 5 21.05% 4 0.767 High 45.00% 9 26.32% 5 0.216 Tense arousal Low 15.00% 3 68.42% 12 0.002 Average 35.00% 7 26.32% 5 0.542 High 50.00% 10 5.26% 1 0.002 Hedonic tone Low 20.00% 2 0.00% 0 0.039 Average 35.00% 7 10.53% 2 0.063 High 45.00% 9 89.47% 16 0.036 The only signi cant di erence was in tense arousal (TA). TA before the run (M=19.85; SD=4.82) turned out to be signi cantly higher than TA after the run (M=12.80; SD=4.44); Z=2.46,p=0.014. The next part of the analyses regarded reaction times on the Stroop color and word test. The reaction times of participants before and after the run are presented (in seconds) in Table.

The study explores mood and cognitive changes in ultramarathon runners before and after a 100 km race.