24 Hours on the Run—Does Boredom Matter for Ultra-Endurance Athletes’ Crises?

and exercise can be boring. In the general population, thinking of sports as boring has been linked to exercising less. However, less is known about the role of boredom in people who participate in ultra-endurance competitions: Do these athletes also associate their sports with boredom, and does boredom pose a self-regulatory challenge that predicts if they encounter a crisis during an ultra-endurance competition? Here, we investigate these questions with a sample ofN= 113 (n= 34female) competitors of a 24 h hour running competition, agedM= 37.6 13.8 years. In this study,n= 23very extremeathletes competed as single starters or in a relay team of 2, andn= 84less extremeathletes competed in relay teams of 4 or 6. Before the run, athletes completed self-report measures on sport-specific trait boredom, as well as the degree to which they expected boredom, pain, effort, and willpower to constitute self-regulatory challenges they would have to cope with. After the run, athletes reported the degree to which they actually had to deal with these self-regulatory challenges and if they had faced an action crisis during the competition. Analyses revealed that very extreme athletes displayed a significantly lower sport-specific trait boredom than less extreme athletes

pain, effort, and willpower to constitute self-regulatory challenges they would have to cope with. After the run, athletes reported the degree to which they actually had to deal with these self-regulatory challenges and if they had faced an action crisis during the competition. Analyses revealed that very extreme athletes displayed a significantly lower sport-specific trait boredom than less extreme athletes (p= 0.024,d= 0.48). With respect to self-regulatory challenges, willpower, pain, and effort were expected and reported at a much higher rate than boredom. However, only boredom was as a significant predictor of experiencing a crisis during the competition (odds ratio = 12.5,p= 0.02). Our results show that boredom also matters for highly active athletes. The fact that the experience of boredom—and not more prototypical competition-induced challenges, such as pain or effort—were linked to having an action crisis highlights the relevance of incorporating boredom into the preparation for a race and to the performance management during competition. Keywords:boredom; ultra-endurance running; action crisis 1. Introduction Boredom is an “aversive state that occurs when we are not able to successfully engage attention” and being bored is accompanied by a “high degree of mental effort expended in an attempt to engage with the task” [1]. Thus, per de nition, the experience of boredom is aversive, and people strive to minimize or avoid being bored [2]. However, research shows that boredom is a frequent experience in everyday life and that those who experience it regularly and intensely (i.e., score high on boredom proneness, and thus display high trait boredom) are more likely to engage in unhealthy behaviors and less likely to engage in healthy actions (for reviews, please see [3,4]). For example, one study found that higher levels of sport-speci c (the relatively stable tendency to associate sports and exercise with boredom) and domain-general trait measures of boredom were related to less physical exercise in a large sample of crowd workers [5]. In addition to trait boredom, state boredom, which refers to situationally de ned in uences on one's tendency to experience boredom, is a powerful motivator of behavior [6]. Being bored has for example

to associate sports and exercise with boredom) and domain-general trait measures of boredom were related to less physical exercise in a large sample of crowd workers [5]. In addition to trait boredom, state boredom, which refers to situationally de ned in uences on one's tendency to experience boredom, is a powerful motivator of behavior [6]. Being bored has for example been linked to negative behaviors, such as self-administered pain [7] or sadistic aggression [8], but also to positive responses, such as creativity [9]. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 6859.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 6859 2 of 15 Boredom appears to exert its effects due to the role it plays in how people self-regulate their behavior. Theoretical and empirical work has shown that persisting in a boring situation places substantial self-regulatory demands on the bored person [10,11]. More speci cally, being bored is understood to create the urge to do something else [11,12], thereby making it harder to continue what one is currently doing [13]. In order to continue with a boring task, the bored person therefore has to employ self-regulatory control (or “willpower”). To illustrate, a runner who experiences boredom during a run will need to em- ploy willpower to keep goingdespitethe boredom-induced urge to do something else. Con- sistent with this, boredom can create feelings of fatigue [14] or frustration, and even impair performance [10]. Indeed, in a high-powered experimental study, Milyavskaya et al. [14] showed that performing an easy but boring task created sensations of fatigue that could even outweigh the fatigue that is experienced by performing a supposedly more challeng- ing task that was designed to require effortful control. More relevant for the sports and exercise context, this nding was conceptually replicated in a recent study, showing that completing either a boring or a control demanding rst task did not differentially affect performance in a handgrip endurance task that was completed afterwards [15]. Thus, being bored, or having to complete a control demanding task, appeared to have similar effects on performance in a subsequent effortful physical task. Recent work outside the sporting context even found that people seem to prefer physical effort over being bored [16]. In sum, a large body of research shows that trait and state boredom play a powerful role in how people self-regulate their behavior in different life domains [17–19]. Moreover, the magnitude of boredom's effects sometimes even outweighs those that are induced by tasks that are designed to require willpower or effortful control. With respect to sports and exercise, recent work demonstrates that boredom matters when it comes to understand- ing how much people exercise [5] and how well

how people self-regulate their behavior in different life domains [17–19]. Moreover, the magnitude of boredom's effects sometimes even outweighs those that are induced by tasks that are designed to require willpower or effortful control. With respect to sports and exercise, recent work demonstrates that boredom matters when it comes to understand- ing how much people exercise [5] and how well they perform in physically demanding tasks [15]. Crucially, the aforementioned studies refer to samples drawn from the general population and investigate if boredom can potentially deter people from engaging in sports at all, and how it can alter performance in a standardized physical effort task in the lab. However, less is known about the role of boredom in people and conditions on the other side of this continuum, and whether athletes who participate in extreme endurance events also associate sports with boredom. Do athletes experience boredom during such extreme sports competitions, and does it play a role in how athletes fare during the competition? Here, we aim to address these questions in a sample of (ultra-endurance) runners. 1.1. Trait Boredom and Ultra-Endurance Running Ultra-endurance running is a type of sports that, for outsiders, seems to exhibit almost ideal properties for inducing boredom. Indeed, in ultra-endurance running, athletes have to execute the same motion over and over again at a relatively low intensity. In addition, the change in external stimulation can be quite small and gradual in many ultra-endurance events. Thus, the environment can be very monotonous: athletes might run through deserts, where the lack of speci c external landmarks is so pronounced that runners are in danger of getting lost, so they even have to wear tracking devices [20]. Likewise, a competition might take so long that athletes have to compete during the night, thereby running through almost complete darkness, again with little change in external stimulation. In addition, ultra-endurance events can be incredibly demanding, posing challenges that far exceed the expectations of most athletes. This can be true even for those who signed up for the race and have speci cally trained for it. To illustrate, the annual Barkley

compete during the night, thereby running through almost complete darkness, again with little change in external stimulation. In addition, ultra-endurance events can be incredibly demanding, posing challenges that far exceed the expectations of most athletes. This can be true even for those who signed up for the race and have speci cally trained for it. To illustrate, the annual Barkley Marathons, are famous for offering such demanding race settings that, in some years, none of the athletes can even make it to the nish in time. Monotony, repetition, and demands that are so high that even excellent preparation can produce rather slim odds of success all appear to be central to ultra-endurance running. All of these factors have been linked to inducing boredom [21,22]. Despite this ostensibly high potential for inducing boredom, the popularity of ultra- endurance competitions (de ned as any endurance event longer than 6 h) has risen con-

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 6859 3 of 15 siderably within the last 25 years [23]. Thus, although endurance sports might seem particularly boring to many people [24], an increasing number of people are drawn to participate in them. It is unlikely that these athletes perceive their sports as particularly boring, because people rarely choose to engage in activities that bore them [2], and try hard to escape boring situations [25]. To ultra-endurance athletes, their sports might even offer an escape from boredom and, thereby, be a source of meaningful and valuable ex- periences. Consistent with this, escapism from everyday life, experiencing nature, and to make borderline experiences are stated as factors when ultra-endurance athletes are queried about what motivates them to engage in their sports [26]. While ultra-endurance athletes in general are probably not very prone to succumb to their sports' potential for inducing boredom (i.e., repetition, monotony, and dif culty) [27], it is plausible that even within this group, differences exist in sport-speci c trait boredom. Very extreme athletes compete in the longest and most demanding competitions (e.g., races as described above), and it is conceivable that they display even lower levels of sport-speci c trait boredom than their less extreme ultra-endurance peers (who do not compete in the longest competitions but rather compete in races with shorter running bouts). 1.2. Self-Regulatory Challenges and Action Crises during Competition: The Role of State Boredom Does boredom matter as a self-regulatory challenge during ultra-endurance compe- titions? Clearly, ultra-endurance sports pose a multitude of self-regulatory challenges that likely far outweigh boredom in their magnitude and salience. For example, exercise- induced pain, as well as having to employ willpower and effort toward reaching one's sporting goal, are frequently associated with (ultra-)endurance sports [28–31]. Indeed, subjective pain, perception of exertion, and willpower have all been described as being particularly relevant in ultra-endurance sports [32–35]. Given their relevance as determi- nants for success in endurance sports, successful athletes are potentially very well versed in dealing with them [36–38]. This can be illustrated using the example of pain. Being able to sustain very high

sports [28–31]. Indeed, subjective pain, perception of exertion, and willpower have all been described as being particularly relevant in ultra-endurance sports [32–35]. Given their relevance as determi- nants for success in endurance sports, successful athletes are potentially very well versed in dealing with them [36–38]. This can be illustrated using the example of pain. Being able to sustain very high levels of pain is critical to success in ultra-endurance sports, as athletes have to keep going even if their bodies are hurting [39]. Interestingly, ultra-endurance athletes seem to be very good at dealing with pain: A study with ultra-endurance runners who competed in a 4487 km foot race that lasted 64 days reported that the ultra-endurance athletes displayed a higher pain tolerance in a cold pressor test than controls [33]. Thus, while pain is a key self-regulatory challenge ultra-endurance athletes have to deal with, they are also very capable of coping with it [40]. If self-regulatory challenges, such as having to deal with pain, cannot be managed, it is likely that the athlete will begin to struggle until, in the worst case, he or she will have to withdraw from the competition [41]. Such a dropout, or the disengagement from the original goal (e.g., to cross the nish line), does not function like an on/off switch that is ipped abruptly. Thus, the nal accomplishment of the goal is accompanied by the constant process, which keeps the athlete between the further pursuit of the desired outcome or giving up. This is de ned as anaction crisis, usually occurring when an athlete has already invested a tremendous effort in achieving her goal, but is repeatedly confronted with mental dif culties [42]. One way to assess the impact self-regulatory challenges have on success during an ultra-endurance competition is to evaluate if they predict an action crisis during competition. The relevance of the self-regulatory challenge of dealing with pain, exertion tolerance and applying willpower is well established [32–35]. Much less is known about the role of boredom during ultra-endurance competitions. Although ultra-endurance athletes are unlikely to be prone to associate their sports with boredom

during an ultra-endurance competition is to evaluate if they predict an action crisis during competition. The relevance of the self-regulatory challenge of dealing with pain, exertion tolerance and applying willpower is well established [32–35]. Much less is known about the role of boredom during ultra-endurance competitions. Although ultra-endurance athletes are unlikely to be prone to associate their sports with boredom (i.e., score low on sport- speci c trait boredom), it is still plausible that even those athletes can get bored during a competition, and that they might encounter a crisis during their competition because of boredom. This is especially true when the duration of the competition lasts many hours, as it is typical in ultra-endurance sports. The latter is particularly critical because only a few studies have addressed boredom in the context of sports, especially in high-performance

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 6859 4 of 15 sports. As one notable exception, Hoffman and Krouse [27] reported a generally low boredom susceptibility among ultra-marathon participants. Thus, consistent with the reasoning presented here, ultra-endurance athletes seemed to be less prone to becoming bored. However, this did not address if even low levels of boredom might lead to a crisis during a competition. Highlighting the negative effect boredom can have on performance, Velasco and Jorda [43] reported that boredom was frequently experienced and did have a negative effect on performance among elite and sub-elite athletes. This was particularly the case when training consisted of repetitive tasks. Thus, consistent with the reason presented here, boredom appears to matter as a self-regulatory challenge in sports. However, this study was not conducted with (ultra-)endurance athletes who might be particularly robust against the experience of boredom [27]. 1.3. The Present Study—24 Hours on the Run Research on boredom among ultra-endurance athletes is lacking. Here, we tackle this gap with two research questions. First, we expect that ultra-endurance (very extreme) runners display lower levels of sport-speci c trait boredom than theirless extremepeers. To investigate this question, we adapted a measure of sport-speci c trait boredom [5,44]. Runners were classi ed asvery extremeif they competed in a 24 h running competition as single starters or duo starters. They were compared toless extremerunners, who participated in the same competition in relay teams of four or six competitors. This classi cation is based on the expected run time of at least 12 h or longer for the ultra-endurance runners, which requires a much higher endurance performance, creating even more advanced and challenging conditions. Secondly, we assess if runners experience boredom during an ultra-running com- petition and, if so, whether this leads to an action crisis during their race. To address this question, the runners were surveyed before and after partaking in the 24 h running competition. To assess boredom, runners replied to a single item assessment of the degree to which they expected to get bored during the run (measured before the run), as well as the

so, whether this leads to an action crisis during their race. To address this question, the runners were surveyed before and after partaking in the 24 h running competition. To assess boredom, runners replied to a single item assessment of the degree to which they expected to get bored during the run (measured before the run), as well as the degree to which they actually experienced boredom during the run (measured after the run). To contrast boredom with more prototypical challenges, athletes also replied to single item measures on effort, willpower, and pain in the same before (expectation) and after (actual experience) format. In order to assess if any of the surveyed challenges would predict the occurrence of a crisis, athletes were queried after the race if they had encountered a crisis during their run. 2. Methods 2.1. Participants The study included a total ofN= 113 highly active and experienced athletes (female: n= 34, male:n= 74, did not provide answer:n= 7) who were between 18 and 75 years old (M= 37.6 years 13.8), and who participated in the survey before and after the 24 h race on the 12 and 13 June 2021 in Reichenau, Germany. During the race,n= 21 of them took part as a single starter andn= 2 in a duo. Those athletes were categorized asvery extreme. Additionally,n= 24 participated in a relay team of 4, andn= 60 in a team of 6. Those athletes were categorized as beingless extreme. Information on training speci c data and how they performed in the race are listed in Table. Prior to participation, athletes were asked to ll out and sign an informed consent form. The procedure was fully in line with the guidelines laid out in the Declaration of Helsinki and was not subject to a separate IRB assessment per the guidelines of the ethics committee of the University Konstanz.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2022,19, 6859 5 of 15 Table 1.Participation, age, and training, as well as event performance statistics. Very Extreme Athletes N Age Weekly Training (km) Avg. Event Distance (km) Max. Event Distance (km) Sport-Speci c Boredom (Avg. Mean Score) male 18 44.4 14.9 72.8 33.6 110.7 55.7 197 1.27 0.37 female 5 37.0 9.4 60.0 39.6 82.5 57.3 123 1.32 0.43 all 23 43.9 13.7 72.6 34.0 104.8 54.4 197 1.28 0.37 Less Extreme Athletes N Age Weekly Training (km) Avg. Event Distance (km) Max. Event Distance (km) Sport-Speci c Boredom (Avg. Mean Score) male 54 38.5 13.3 37.5 21.4 54.9 14.3 101 1.54 0.53 female 30 31.8 12.4 33.6 15.5 43.8 13.2 80 1.46 0.35 all 84 36.0 13.3 35.3 19.6 50.7 14.8 101 1.50 0.46 2.2. Race Setting The 24 h race took place on the 12 and 13 June 2021 in Reichenau, Germany. The course led over a 3.5 km loop, which should be covered as often as possible within 24 h as a single starter or in a relay team. Running was allowed to be paused at any time to rest or to change to another team member. For the break, an assigned camping area was available to all participants. In addition to their own food, drinks and bars were permanently provided by the organizer. The course was not fully illuminated at night, which made it necessary to run with a head or body light. The best three teams in each category were awarded with non-monetary prizes at the end of the competition. 2.3. Questionnaire Demographics, sport-speci c trait boredom, self-regulatory challenges, and potential action crises during the race were assessed with two surveys that had to be completed before (version 1: expectation) and after the race (version 2: actual experience). Not all surveyed questions are analyzed and reported in the present paper, but the complete questionnaire can be viewed (https://osf.io/2tj94/?view_only=b60a598024f6469a8eb2ae90e57443aa). The response rate of usable tests of version 1 was 55% (109 returned questionnaires) and 40% for version 2 (80 returned questionnaires). An overview of the questions asked and the number

The study explores how boredom affects ultra-endurance athletes during competitions.