Abstract
We investigated the effect of macronutrient composition of pre-exercise meals on endurance performance. Subjects consumed a high-carbohydrate diet at each meal for 3 days, followed by a high-fat meal (HFM; 1007 ± 21 kcal, 30% CHO, 55% F and 15% P) or high-carbohydrate meal (HCM; 1007 ± 21 kcal, 71% CHO, 20% F and 9% P) 4 h before exercise. Furthermore, just prior to the test, subjects in the HFM group ingested either maltodextrin jelly (M) or a placebo jelly (P), while subjects in the HCM ingested a placebo jelly. Endurance performance was measured as running time until exhaustion at a speed between lactate threshold and the onset of blood lactate accumulation. All subjects participated in each trial, randomly assigned at weekly intervals. We observed that the time until exhaustion was significantly longer in the HFM + M (p < 0.05) than in HFM + P and HCM + P conditions. Furthermore, the total amount of fat oxidation during exercise was significantly higher in HFM + M and HFM + P than in HCM + P (p < 0.05). These results suggest that ingestion of a HFM prior to exercise is more favorable for endurance performance than HCM. In addition, HFM and maltodextrin ingestion following 3 days of carbohydrate loading enhances endurance running performance. OPEN ACCESS
in HFM + M and HFM + P than in HCM + P (p < 0.05). These results suggest that ingestion of a HFM prior to exercise is more favorable for endurance performance than HCM. In addition, HFM and maltodextrin ingestion following 3 days of carbohydrate loading enhances endurance running performance. OPEN ACCESS
Nutrients 2012, 4 626 Keywords: marathon; glycogen; fat oxidation; carbohydrate oxidation; metabolism 1. Introduction Glycogen is an important source of energy for endurance exercise, such as marathons [1,2]. It is well-documented that prolonged exercise is associated with the depletion of the muscle glycogen in the working muscle. Thus, an increased glycogen concentration before exercise improves endurance performance [1]. The ingestion of a high-carbohydrate diet approximately 3 h before exercise can increase glycogen concentrations in muscle [3] and liver [4], thereby contributing to normal blood glucose concentrations during exercise. Endurance athletes were recommended to employ the carbohydrate-loading method [5,6] and ingest a high-carbohydrate meal (HCM) on the day of a race to enhance carbohydrate storage [7]. However, a study of Saltin et al. indicates that glycogen storage levels can peak after glycogen loading so that muscle glycogen may not further increase, even if large amounts of carbohydrates are ingested on race day [5]. Moreover, if there is an intake of high levels of carbohydrates before exercise, but after glycogen loading, then a rise in blood glucose might occur, resulting in an elevation of insulin that may persist. This, in turn, will inhibit free fatty acid (FFA) mobilization and may lead to the rapid depletion of glycogen during exercise, thereby negatively affecting performance [8]. Conversely, the intake of a high-fat meal (HFM) before exercise increases blood FFA levels when compared with those levels derived from ingestion of a HCM [9]. Increased blood FFA concentration contributes to an increase in lipid metabolism, thus resulting in the advantageous effect that muscle glycogen levels are conserved during endurance exercise [8,10–12]. As a result, a pre-exercise HFM may help to conserve carbohydrates, and consequently improve the endurance performance. However, this result was not demonstrated in human studies, with studies failing to show a difference in exercise performance between the consumption of a HCM and HFM [9,13]. These unexpected results may be due to the relationship between HFM diet and super-compensation of glycogen in the muscle; a hypothesis that has been neglected in the previous studies. The intake of carbohydrate drinks just before and during prolonged exercise
studies, with studies failing to show a difference in exercise performance between the consumption of a HCM and HFM [9,13]. These unexpected results may be due to the relationship between HFM diet and super-compensation of glycogen in the muscle; a hypothesis that has been neglected in the previous studies. The intake of carbohydrate drinks just before and during prolonged exercise enhances performance [14–19]. We hypothesize that if glycogen loading [5,6] is carried out and the amount of glycogen stored reaches its maximum, the intake of a HFM on race day, which includes carbohydrates to replace hepatic glycogen that has been used during sleep, may help to improve performance as compared with the intake of a HCM. Moreover, ingestion of carbohydrates just before starting exercise would be expected to have a conservation effect on muscle glycogen, thereby further enhancing performance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a HFM and a HCM 4 h prior to exercise after ingesting a high-carbohydrate diet for 3 days, based on previous studies [9,13], and to demonstrate the effects on endurance performance from ingesting carbohydrates immediately before exercise in subjects that have ingested a pre-exercise HFM.
Nutrients 2012, 4 627 2. Experimental Methods 2.1. Subjects This study evaluated the impact of high fat or high carbohydrate diet prior to an endurance running test. Eight male collegiate long-distance athletes, who engaged in physical training almost every day, were recruited for the investigation. This study was approved by the Fukuoka University Ethical Committee. Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects. 2.2. Preliminary Exercise Tests The anthropometric characteristics of each subject were measured at least 1 week before the main trials. The body fat mass and ratio were measured by hydrostatic weighing, based on the hydrostatic density, with corrections made for the residual lung volume. The speed corresponding to the lactate threshold (LT) [20], the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA), which is the theoretical anaerobic threshold [21], and the maximum oxygen intake (V ． O2max), were determined using an intermittent, multistep, increasing load exercise test on a treadmill (ELG-2, Woodway, WI) with 4-min and 2-min rests per single load. An initial load of 220 m/min was increased by 20 m/min per single load. A blood sample was obtained from the ear lobe at each stage to measure the lactic acid (LA) concentration (Biosen 5040, EFK, Germany). When the LA concentration exceeded 4 mmol/L, the load was increased at a continuous rate of 10 m/min until the subject reached exhaustion. The V ． O2max was measured from the mixed expired gas collected in neoprene bags. The volume of the expired gas was quantified with a twin-drum respirometer (Fukuda Irika CR-20, Tokyo, Japan). The O2 and CO2 fractions were analyzed by mass spectrometry (ARCO-1000, ARCO System Inc., Chiba, Japan). The O2 and CO2 fractions were calibrated using standardized gas (Approx. 16% O2 and 4% CO2). The characteristics of the subjects are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Characteristics of the subjects. Age (year) 22.2 ± 0.2 Height (cm) 169.2 ± 1.6 Body mass (kg) 55.9 ± 1.5 Body fat (%) 6.7 ± 0.7 V ． O2max (mL/kg/min) 61.3 ± 2.2 LT speed (m/min) 254 ± 3.4 Abbreviations: VO2max, maximal oxygen uptake; LT speed, speed at the lactate threshold. Values
subjects are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Characteristics of the subjects. Age (year) 22.2 ± 0.2 Height (cm) 169.2 ± 1.6 Body mass (kg) 55.9 ± 1.5 Body fat (%) 6.7 ± 0.7 V ． O2max (mL/kg/min) 61.3 ± 2.2 LT speed (m/min) 254 ± 3.4 Abbreviations: VO2max, maximal oxygen uptake; LT speed, speed at the lactate threshold. Values shown as mean ± S.E. 2.3. Nutritional Status Each subject ingested a HCM (2562 ± 19 kcal/day in total calories: 71% carbohydrates, 19% fat, and 10% protein) at all three meals for 3 days before the main trials. For the first 2 days during this time frame, training was limited to a low intensity and a low amount (far below the LT and within 30 min). In order to reach the near-maximum muscle glycogen storage amounts, the subjects were instructed to ingest a HCM and refrain from training on the day before measurement.
Nutrients 2012, 4 628 2.4. Main Trials The protocol timeline is illustrated in Figure 1. The testing protocols were preceded by a 10-h overnight fast, and the subjects were randomly served either HFM (1007 ± 21 kcal/meal in total calories; 30% carbohydrates, 55% fat, and 15% protein) or HCM (1007 ± 21 kcal/meal in total calories; 70% carbohydrates, 21% fat, and 9% protein) 4 h before starting exercise. Three min before the trial, the subjects of the HFM group ingested either maltodextrin jelly (M: 410 ± 8 kcal), which has a higher rate of absorption than glucose, or placebo jelly (P: 0 kcal); subjects in the HCM group ingested placebo jelly. Subject allocation to M or P groups was completed in a double-blind method. All subjects participated in three trials (HFM + M, HFM + P, and HCM + P), with at least 1 week between each trial. The order for group participation for each subject was randomly assigned at the start of the study. The 80-min fixed load test was conducted using a treadmill at the LT speed (71.8 ± 1.7% VO2max), which conforms to each individual’s marathon race pace [22]. Next, each subject performed continuous endurance running until exhaustion at a speed between the LT and OBLA (80.0 ± 1.6% VO2max). The speed was employed to induce exhaustion by glycogen depletion, but not LA over accumulation. The heart rate (HR) was recorded by a heart rate monitor (Polar: Canon-trading Co., Inc., Tokyo, Japan), and included the HR at rest and the HR for 30 s before the conclusion of each exercise stage. Borg’s scale [23] was used to determine the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) immediately after the conclusion of each exercise stage. Subjects were permitted to voluntarily drink water during HFM and HCM ingestion and throughout the exercise period. The temperature and humidity in the laboratory were controlled to 20 °C and 56%, respectively. Figure 1. Experimental protocol. Protocol timeline illustrates gas collection, blood collection, exercise intensity periods and timing of ingesting high-fat or high-carbohydrate meal (test meals) 4 h before exercise, and either maltodextrin jelly or
drink water during HFM and HCM ingestion and throughout the exercise period. The temperature and humidity in the laboratory were controlled to 20 °C and 56%, respectively. Figure 1. Experimental protocol. Protocol timeline illustrates gas collection, blood collection, exercise intensity periods and timing of ingesting high-fat or high-carbohydrate meal (test meals) 4 h before exercise, and either maltodextrin jelly or placebo jelly 3 min before exercise. Abbreviations: FFA, free fatty acid. 2.5. Measurement of Gas Exchange Expired gas was collected in neoprene bags for 5 min after the subjects arrived at the laboratory and rested for 30 min, and for 5 min each at 10-min intervals up to 90 min after the subjects finished their meals and at 30-min intervals for an additional 240 min. In addition, during exercise, expired gas was collected for 1 min for every 15 min up to 75 min and for 2 min as the subject neared exhaustion. The collected expired gas volume was measured by a two-barrel drum-type respirometer and O2 and CO2 concentration in expired gas was measured by mass spectrometry. Carbohydrate and fat oxidation were
Nutrients 2012, 4 629 calculated from V ． O2 based on the Lusk formula [24], as follows: (kcal/min) = VO2 (mL/min) × (3.81 + 1.23 × R)/1000. 2.6. Blood Samples Analysis During the exercise, blood samples were taken every 15 min from the ear lobe of each subject and used to measure LA. Otherwise, blood samples were collected from the antecubital vein to measure blood glucose, insulin, FFA, and LA at fasting, and 30, 60, 90, 120, 180 and 240 min after meal ingestion. The LA value was analyzed using a lactate analysis device. Plasma and serum specimens were obtained following centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 10 min at 4 °C and stored at −80 °C until analysis. The plasma glucose concentrations were determined by UV-methods with hexokinase using Bio Majesty (JCA-BM 8000 series, JEOL, Tokyo, Japan). The insulin concentrations in the serum were determined with Enzyme Immunoassay using Beads Chemiluminescent System (BCS620, SRL Inc., Tokyo, Japan). The FFA concentrations were determined using an Enzymatic Method on Bio Majesty (JCA-BM2250, JEOL, Tokyo, Japan). 2.7. Statistical Analysis Data from the three trials were analyzed using a two-way (meal and time) ANOVA with repeated measurements. One-way ANOVA was used to compare the performance times and to compare energy expenditure amongst the three groups. When significant differences were revealed using the ANOVA, a Tukey post hoc test was performed. All statistical analyses were conducted using Stat View software (version 5.0.1, SAS Institute, NC). Statistical significance was defined as being represented by a p value less than 0.05. 3. Results The average time until exhaustion was significantly extended in subjects who ingested HFM + M as compared with those who ingested HFM + P or HCM + P (p < 0.05) (Table 2). The time until exhaustion for subjects who ingested HFM + P showed no significant differences when compared with subjects who ingested HCM + P, but the performance time of seven out of eight subjects was extended. Table 2. Running time to exhaustion for three trials. HFM: high-fat meal; HCM: high-carbohydrate meal; M: maltodextrin; and P: placebo jelly. HFM + M HFM
time until exhaustion for subjects who ingested HFM + P showed no significant differences when compared with subjects who ingested HCM + P, but the performance time of seven out of eight subjects was extended. Table 2. Running time to exhaustion for three trials. HFM: high-fat meal; HCM: high-carbohydrate meal; M: maltodextrin; and P: placebo jelly. HFM + M HFM + P HCM + P A 87 75 85 B 110 91 85 C 90 90 84 D 92 91 88 E 101 96 94 F 107 96 93 G 99 95 94 H 115 105 97 Mean ± SE 100 ± 3.4 * ,† 92 ± 2.8 90 ± 1.7 Running time shown as minutes. * compared with HFM + P (p < 0.05). † compared with HCM + P (p < 0.05).
Nutrients 2012, 4 630 Figure 2. Changes in the Respiratory Exchange Ratio (RER) at rest and during exercise. * indicates when high-fat meal with maltodextrin (HFM + M) and high-fat meal with placebo (HFM + P) values were significantly lower than high-carbohydrate meal and placebo (HCM + P) values (p < 0.05). # indicates when HFM + P was significantly lower than HCM+P (p < 0.05). Data are shown as mean ± S.E. * * * * 0.70 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00 0306090120150180210240Ex15Ex30Ex45Ex60Ex75 Time（min） Rest Exercise Subject intakes jelly Subject consumes test meals * ** * * ♯ ♯ ♯ RER HFM+M HFM+P HCM+P Figure 3. Carbohydrate oxidation rates (%) for 240 min at rest and for 75 min during exercise. * indicates when high-fat meal with maltodextrin (HFM + M) and high-fat meal with placebo (HFM + P) values were significantly lower than high-carbohydrate meal and placebo (HCM + P) values (p < 0.05). # indicates when HFM + P was significantly lower than HCM + P (p < 0.05). Data are shown as mean ± S.E. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0306090120150180210240Ex15Ex30Ex45Ex60Ex75 rest exerciseCarbohydrate oxidation rate(%) Time（min） Subject intakes jelly Subject consumes test meals HFM+M HFM+P HCM+P ♯ ♯ ♯ ♯ * * *** * * * ** There was no statistical difference in the average values of oxygen consumption at rest (0.28 ± 0.01 L/min, 0.27 ± 0.01 L/min, 0.27 ± 0.01 L/min, in HFM + M, HFM + P, and HCM + P, respectively) or during exercise (2.59 ± 0.16 L/min, 2.59 ± 0.14 L/min, 2.58 ± 0.17 L/min,
Nutrients 2012, 4 631 in HFM + M, HFM + P, and HCM + P, respectively) among the three groups. The RER, carbohydrate and fat oxidization rates are shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4. At rest, subjects in the HFM + M and HFM + P groups showed a lower RER and carbohydrate oxidation rate than subjects in the HCM + P group. During exercise, these values continued to decrease. In contrast, at rest, the fat oxidation rate was higher in the HFM + M and HFM + P groups as compared with subjects in the HCM + P group. During exercise, the fat oxidation rate was higher in the HFM + P group than the HCM + P group. Figure 4. Fat oxidation rates (%) for 240 min at rest and for 75 min during exercise. * indicates when high-fat meal with maltodextrin (HFM + M) and high-fat meal with placebo (HFM + P) values were significantly higher than high-carbohydrate meal and placebo (HCM + P) values (p < 0.05). # indicates when HFM + P was significantly higher than HCM + P (p < 0.05). Data are shown as mean ± S.E. 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0306090120150180210240Ex15Ex30Ex45Ex60Ex75 rest exercise HFM+M HFM+P HCM+P Fat oxidation rate(%) Time（min） Subject intakes jelly Subject consumes test meals * **** * * * ** ♯ ♯ ♯ ♯ Carbohydrate oxidation (Figure 5) during rest was significantly lower with HFM + M and HFM + P than with HCM + P (p < 0.05), while fat oxidation for the same groups (Figure 5) was high (p < 0.05). Carbohydrate oxidation (Figure 5) during the 75 min of exercise was significantly lower in subjects in the HFM + P group as compared with those in the HFM + M and HCM + P groups (p < 0.05). Fat oxidation (Figure 5) during the 75 min of exercise was significantly higher in groups HFM+P and HFM + M as compared with the HCM + P group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, fat oxidation was higher in HFM + P
Description
This study examines how high-fat meals affect endurance after carbohydrate loading.